UC  SOUTHERN  REGIONAL  LIBRARY  FACILITY 

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INTERNATIONAL  EDUCATION  SERIES 


sttjde:^t  life 
and  customs 


BY 

HEE'RY  D.  SHELDON,  Ph.D. 

PROFESSOR  IN  THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  OREGON 


SS^  2. 


NEW    YORK 
D.     APPLETON     AND     COMPANY 
O  -  3  1901 


Copyright,  1901, 
By  D.  APPLETON  AND  COMPANY. 


Electrotyped  and  Printed 

AT  THE  APPLETON  PrESS,  U.  S.  A* 


EDITOE'S  PREFACE. 


A  BOOK  on  Student  Life  in  Universities  and  Colleges 
has  to  deal  chiefly  with  the  way  and  manner  in  which 
students  react  against  the  regular  work  of  the  institu- 
tion and  its  rules  and  regulations  in  order  to  preserve 
their  individuality. 

The  discipline  of  the  institution,  both  as  to  the 
learning  which  it  teaches  and  as  to  the  regulations  it 
imposes,  tends  to  efface  the  independence  of  the  student 
and  to  make  him  in  some  sense  a  mere  automaton.  But, 
on  the  other  hand,  the  learning  taught  at  the  univer- 

^i/'  sity,  although  it  is  remote  from  the  present  life  of  the 
student,  is  of  such  a  character  as  to  give  him  confidence 
in  himself  by  enlarging  his  survey  of  the  world  in  which 
he  lives.  In  this  aspect  the  student  finds  his  individu- 
ality stimulated  and  developed.  He  feels  that  he  is  en- 
lightened as  compared  with  the  prosaic  ordinary  citi- 
zen, or  as  compared  with  his  former  self. 

Goaded  by  the  contradiction  between  his  growing 
individuality  and  his  sense  of  the  slight  done  to  his 
likes  and  preferences  by  the  requirements  of  the  school, 
the  student  reacts  against  the  established  order  in  which 
he  finds  himself,  and  endeavours  to  recover  his  inter- 

X      nal  equilibrium  by  proving  his  personal  ability  to  de- 

^  stroy  the  social  might  that  manifests  itself  in  his  com- 
munity, and  more  especially  in  the  school  of  which  he 

\      is  a  member, 
h         Education   involves   two   wills:    an   individual   will 
]  and  an  institutional  will.     The  state  and  the  family 


VI  STUDENT  LIFE  AND  CUSTOMS.     ' 

are  institutions,  and  they  may  be  so  strict  in  their 
regime  as  to  crush  out  the  individual  will  unless  it 
saves  itself  by  reaction. 

The  earliest  and  most  rudimental  of  national  forms 
are  likest  to  the '  family.  Simple,  implicit  obedience 
to  the  will  of  the  parent  is  the  part  of  the  child.  The 
symbol  of  the  dragon  which  appears  so  frequently  in 
the  art  of  China  and  Japan  embodies  this  idea  of  un- 
reasoning obedience  to  authority.  Merely  external 
authority  is  a  dragon. 

Spontaneity  and  freedom  are  by  all  means  desirable, 
but  they  must  conform  to  reason.  Modern  civilization 
far  more  than  ancient  seeks  to  harmonize  the  will  of 
the  individual  with  the  will  of  the  social  whole.  It 
seeks  to  make  obedience  rational  by  giving  to  the  stu- 
dent an  insight  into  the  necessity  of  its  rules  of  order 
for  public  safety  and  prosperity.  With  this  insight  the 
authority  of  the  state  and  the  family  is  not  any  longer 
an  external  affair:  it  becomes  the  inward  guiding  prin- 
ciple of  the  individual. 

The  opposition  between  the  individual  will  and  the 
will  of  the  social  whole  has  produced  what  is  called  by 
a  recent  writer  the  isolation  of  the  school.  The  school 
breaks  the  continuity  of  the  home  life  of  the  pupil  by 
setting  tasks  of  its  own  and  by  requiring  of  the  child  a 
somewhat  rigid  conformity  to  the  regulations  that  it 
adopts.  When  pedagogical  theory  teaches  that  it  is 
wholly  the  fault  of  the  school  that  it  is  isolated  from 
the  home  life  of  the  child,  it  goes  too  far. 

One  could  say  that  all  education,  whether  in  the 
school,  the  family,  the  state,  the  church,  or  civil  soci- 
j'  ety — that  all  education  is  an  attempt  to  overcome  the 
^'  isolation  of  the  undeveloped  individual,  the  immature 
specimen  of  the  human  race — i.  e.,  the  infant  or  th 
savage,  for  the  child  or  the  savage  is  isolated  from  tht 
rationality  of  his  true  being.     His  thought  is  feeble 


EDITOR'S  PREFACE.  vii 

because  he  can  not  re-enforce  it  by  the  thought  of  the 
race.  His  action  is  feeble  because  it  is  not  re-enforced 
by  the  action  of  all  mankind.  Education^_gt£iyefr"to 
emancipate  thejndmdual  jchildirom  his Jsolation.  It 
is  the  cETld,  and  not  the  school,  that  is  self -estranged. 
In  the  school  the  child  recovers  his  true  self.  But  self- 
estrangement,  as  a  principle,  helps  one  understand  many 
things  in  education  that  are  otherwise  enigmatic:  for 
example,  how  that  the  culture  of  all  races  proceeds  by  a 
mastery  of  a  classic  literature — ^the  study  of  Confucius 
and  Mencius  in  Chinese  educationi,  the  study  of  the  code 
of  Manu,  the  Vedas,  the  Hitopadesa,  among  the  East 
Indians,  the  study  of  the  Koran  among  the  Moham- 
medans, and  the  study  of  the  Bible  and  of  Greek  and 
Latin  classics  among  modern  Christian  nations.  It 
is  a  sort  of  vicarious  living  over  again  of  the  far-off 
world — far  off  from  the  present  and  offering  an  earlier 
epoch  of  the  nation's  civilization. 

The  child  cradled  in  his  immediate  present  takes  it 
for  all  in  all,  and  for  an  isolated,  complete  whole;  but 
his  education  teaches  him  that  it  is  not  isolated,  but 
that  it  is  in  causal  relation  with  all  its  past,  and  in  a 
causal  reaction  with  all  that  is  distant  from  it  in  space. 
Finding  himself  mistaken  as  to  the  completeness  of  his 
present  life  in  this  isolation,  the  youth  begins  to  take 
his  steps  with  increasing  wonder  and  delight  at  finding 
new  worlds  that  were  before  invisible  to  him,  but  which, 
when  once  seen,  help  explain  to  him  what  is  here  and 
now.  The  intellectual  nations  of  the  world,  take  as 
examples  the  Persian  or  East  Indian,  the  Eg}^- 
tian  or  the  Greeks  and  Eomans,  have  studied  not  only 
their  own  classics,  but  also  such  eVments  as  they  pos- 
sessed of  abstract  science  like  mathematics  and  astron- 
omy, and  have  undertaken  foreign  travel  as  an  element 
of  education.  The  school  is  wont  to  symbolize  its 
isolation,  or  'ts  difference  from  the  every-day  life  of 


Viii  STUDENT  LIFE  AND  CUSTOMS. 

the  immediate  present,  by  the  adoption  of  certain  for- 
mal usages,  the  wearing  of  some  special  garb  to  distin- 
guish the  order  from  the  rest  of  the  community,  the 
adoption  of  some  mode  of  life  different  from  that  of  the 
family  of  the  average  citizen.  The  student  perhaps 
has  been  aided  in,  rather  than  hindered  from  mastering 
the  strange  and  far-off  phases  of  the  life  of  his  people 
by  these  matters  of  peculiar  garb  and  the  community 
life  in  the  school  or  college.  He  takes  some  pride  in  thus 
celebrating  his  arrival  at  a  step  removed  from  the  com- 
monplace life  which  he  lived  as  an  immature  youth. 
In  the  school  where  he  is  he  expects  to  be  enlarged  in  his 
life  by  the  addition  of  the  will  and  intellect  of  the  race. 
He  takes  some  pleasure  in  making  this  distinction  of 
his  new  life  from  his  old  life  visible  by  a  cap  and  gown, 
and  by  a  college  life  in  a  system  of  barracks  (college 
dormitories)  rather  than  in  the  family  life  adopted  by 
his  civilization. 

All  culture  begins  with  this  first  estrangement  of 
the  immature  individual  toward  his  immediate  sur- 
roundings, material  and  spiritual,  and  with  the  effort 
to  make  himself  at  home  in  what  is  at  first  strange  and 
different,  but  which  he  will  soon  render  familiar  by 
study  and  practice. 

He  will  begin  to  see,  step  by  step,  his  own  ration- 
ality as  realized  in  civilization,  and  identify  it  with  the 
purpose  of  the  life  of  his  race.  He  will  make  over  for 
himself  a  second  nature  in  these  other  stages  t>f  rational 
life,  isolated  by  time  and  space  from  him. 

He  will  increase  proportionally  in  his  ability  to  think 
and  to  do.  He  will  not  be  surprised  at  the  discovery 
of  a  difference  from  the  manners  and  customs  of  his 
family  or  neighbourhood.  He  will  not  be  astonished  at 
the  habits  of  doing  and  thinking  which  he  sees  among 
foreigners,  but  will  explain  them  in  the  light  which 
he  has  obtained  from  the  comparative  study  of  manners 


EDITOR'S  PREFACE.  IX 

and  customs^  and  modes  of  doing  things;  he  will  be  able 
to  criticise  his  own  manners  and  customs  and  methods 
of  doing,  and  will  see  how  to  reform  them  in  such  a 
manner  as  to  bring  about  a  better  conformity  with  what 
is  rational. 

It  is  in  connection  with  this  process  of  self -estrange- 
ment that  the  series  of  phenomena  arises  which  takes 
on  the  character  of  reaction  against  the  ordinances  of 
the  institutions  of  culture — phenomena  of  student  life 
treated  in  this  book.  It  is  marked  in  the  entire  history 
of  the  race  that  the  culture  world,  the  world  of  self- 
estrangement,  as  organized  in  the  school,  the  church, 
the  state,  and  especially  in  the  family,  always  assumes 
the  attitude  of  authority  and  demands  implicit  obedi- 
ence on  the  part  of  the  child  or  the  individual  citizen. 
This  obedience — more  in  ancient  times  than  now — has 
been  insisted  upon  to  such  an  extent  as  to  threaten  to 
produce  the  effacement  of  the  individual.  It  was 
thought  that  the  individual  must  be  effaced  before  he 
could  become  a  participator  in  the  intellect  and  will  of 
the  social  whole. 

It  sounds  paradoxical  to  say  that  the  pupil  must  be 
effaced  before  he  can  be  re-enforced.  All  the  improve- 
ments and  reforms  in  pedagogy  from  the  beginning 
have  made  it  a  point  of  effort  to  correct  this  defect  and 
prevent  the  complete  effacement  of  the  pupil,  for  the 
more  one  can  save  of  the  strength  of  the  pupil  in  will 
and  intellect  the  better,  provided  it  is  turned  in  the  di- 
rection of  conformity  to  the  will  and  intellect  of  the 
social  whole.  Insight,  as  I  have  before  stated,  eman- 
cipates the  person  from  aurhority.  When  insight  is) 
obtained  there  is  no  longer  any  blind  authority;  for  th( 
person  -does  his  deed  freely  and  intentionally  through' 
insight  into  its  rationality.  He  does  not  do  it  to  oblige 
some  other  person  merely,  but  because  he  sees  that  it  is 
in  itself  reasonable. 


V 


X  STUDENT  LIFE  AND  CUSTOMS. 

During  the  entire  history  of  the  civilization  of  man 
there  have  been  special  reactions  against  blind  obedi- 
ence to  authority,  and  these  we  find  to  continue  down 
to  the  present.  It  appears  that  there  were  great  riots 
and  mobs  from  the  earliest  times  in  universities.  Stu- 
dents were  obliged  to  renounce  the  manners  and  cus- 
toms that  they  brought  with  them  from  their  homes  and 
neighbourhoods  and  put  on  other  forms  and  customs 
that  were  strange  to  them.  In  a  certain  sense  they  had 
to  lose  their  individuality.  But  they  reacted  against 
this:  they  resorted  to  secret  societies,  in  which  they 
mocked  the  forms  and  ceremonies  of  the  venerable  in- 
stitution, and  ridiculed  one  after  another  all  of  the 
studies  which  they  pursued  with  so  much  diligence  in 
their  daily  tasks.  They  went  so  far  as  to  caricature 
their  teachers. 

And  especially  they  delighted  in  outraging  the  sense 
of  propriety  of  the  people  of  the  community  in  which 
their  school  was  situated.  They  had  escaped  from  the 
world  of  productive  industry  and  daily  duties  and  home 
life  into  the  university;  now  they  wished  to  express 
their  sense  of  freedom  by  attacking  the  public  order, 
and  outraging  the  citizens  of  the  town  in  which  they 
lived,  by  assaults  upon  person  and  property. 

Again,  they  sought  to  give  objectivity  to  their  new 
feeling  of  individuality  by  forcing  the  members  of  lower 
classes  into  absurd  rites  and  ceremonies.  The  hazing 
of  students,  the  initiation  of  them  into  the  societies  of 
upper  classes — in  such  mad  performances  as  these  they 
preserved  in  some  sense  their  native  spontaneity  and 
individuality.  They  protected  themselves  against  the 
all-effacing  authority  of  the  institution  by  insane  pranks 
and  capricious  action.  They  attacked  rationality  in  the 
name  of  irrationality,  and  in  this  way  they  preserved 
their  self-activitv  and  sense  of  personality. 

There  is  an  illustration  of  this  in  The  Abbot,  where 


EDITOR'S  PREFACE.  XI 

Walter  Scott  describes  a  revelry  as  taking  place  at  Mel- 
rose Abbey.  It  was  an  annual  mask,  a  species  of  insur- 
rection conducted  by  an  Abbot  of  Misrule,  in  which  the 
stately  ceremonial  of  the  abbey  is  mocked.  The  sur- 
rounding community,  year  in  and  year  out,  obeyed  the 
stern  and  unyielding  authority  of  the  abbot  of  the  mon- 
astery, but  on  the  occasion  of  some  feast-day  of  the 
church  it  recovered  its  sense  of  independence  by  mock- 
ing the  institutional  forms. 

In  ancient  times  the  Saturnalia  was  celebrated  in 
Rome,  and  on  that  day  especially  the  slave  might  mas- 
querade as  his  master,  or  any  private  citizen  might  mas- 
querade as  the  king  or  emperor.  The  slave  on  that 
festal  day  alone  of  all  the  year  wore  the  pileus  or  badge 
of  freedom,  and  was  indulged  in  license  of  speech.  In 
some  cases  the  menials  were  allowed  to  partake  of  a 
banquet,  attired  in  the  clothes  of  their  masters,  who 
waited  on  them  at  the  table.  In  modern  times  the  car- 
nival at  Venice  and  other  European  towns,  and  its  coun- 
terparts in  the  Mardi  Gras  of  New  Orleans,  the  Veiled 
Prophets  of  St.  Louis,  and  similar  revelries  in  other 
cities  of  the  United  States  founded  by  French  or  Span- 
iards, belong  to  the  same  reaction  by  which  the  sense 
of  personality  is  retained  in  the  midst  of  a  general  life 
of  conformity  to  use  and  wont. 

The  student  in  college  loves  nothing  else  so  much 
as  to  march  in  a  torchlight  procession  disguised  in  a 
mask.  At  Yale  he  used  to  celebrate  the  completion  of 
the  study  of  geometry  by  burying  with  funeral  cere- 
monies a  copy  of  Euclid,  the  text  which  he  used. 

It  makes  an  interesting  book  to  collect  in  one  vol- 
ume a  history  of  student  life  at  colleges  and  universities. 
As  before  said,  nearly  all  that  has  to  be  written  in  such 
a  book  concerns  in  one  way  or  another  the  reaction  of 
the  student  against  the  strict  life  imposed  upon  him  by 
authority  and  against  his  continuous  occupation  with 


Xll  STUDENT  LIFE  AND  CUSTOMS. 

«    Greek  and  Eoman  life  and  with  abstract  mathematics — 
I    a  regime  that  threatens  to  efface  his  individuality  and 
make  him  into  a  puppet. 

This  theory  of  self-estrangement  also  explains  why 

secrecy  has  so  much  to  do  with  the  student's  social  life 

in  the   college   and   the   university.     In  his  reaction 

against  the  requirements  of  college,  which  are  blazoned 

;  before  him  and  forced  in  upon  his  attention  at  every 

:  turn,  he  feels  a  heart-hunger  which  can  be  gratified 

I  only  by  the  utmost  self-abandon.    He  must  ridicule  all 

that  is  sacred  and  rational,  and  assert  himself  in  his 

most  irrational  form  of  activity.     For  this  he  requires 

the  cloak  of  secrecy.    Besides,  secrecy  gives  him  a  sense 

of  personal  dominion  as  opposed  to  pulTlic  order. 

The  great  object  of  student  life  is  to  be  able  to  over- 
come  the  isolationof  the  iTn-n^^f.nrp  inrliVidnfll^  whether 
child  or  savage.  The  uncultured  individual  who  has 
been  living  a  life  of  use  and  wont  is  called  by  the  stu- 
dent a  Philistine.  Tbp  stnrlpnt  nr^qm>f,c|  n  gi^Qgi-gq^^gnrQ 
appetite  to  tonTipnf  fViP  i-r^fliAnVlnnl  mhn  in  oninior\if^ 
with    the    life    of    tbp    prPSPJlt    ^^    H"    cVicnnw    ii-nrnQrlig+A- 

ne^gr^e  himsplf  is  sacrificing  all  this  imTiierliateriess  in 
order  to  acguirp  IVip  power  to  be  at  home  \t\  fhf^  rPTnntP 
past  and  in  the  life  of  people  far  distant  in_ space.  That 
the  PhilJRtinp  f^b<^i^hl  hft  so  contented  arouses  his*^TreT 
He-i:^Eesthe  poor  farmer's  load  of  hay,  left  on  the  pub- 
lic square,  and  during  the  latter  part  of  the  night  trans- 
fers it  piece  by  piece  and  wisp  by  wisp  to  the  top  of 
the  college  chapel.  In  the  morning  the  farmer  is 
guided  to  his  vanished  load  of  hay  by  the  gaze  of  the 
populace  at  the  unusual  spectacle  of  a  cart  that  has 
been  removed  to  the  top  of  the  chapel  and  its  load  re- 
placed upon  it.  The  university  is  a  great  power  organ- 
ized, if  it  is  reasonable.  It  is  also  a  great  power  when 
organized  in  the  name  of  unreason. 

The  student  lays  o-reat  stress  on  whimsical  secrets — 


EDITOR'S  PREFACE.  Xlll 

le'^ersin  tV|p  namp  of  his  fraternity  ^^^rtc\  The  coun- 
tersign to  be  repeated  by  each  student  who  attended 
the  burial  of  Euclid  was  some  line  from  Homer's  Iliad 
with  which  he  had  been  familiar  in  his  recent  class- 
room studies. 

Where  this  reaction  is  not  found  in  student  life 
two  causes  may  be  looked  for:  either  the  life  of  the 
college  does  not  stimulate  individuality  enou^o;h  bv  its 
cofJTse  of  study,  and  in  this  case  the  students  are  and  re- 
main  Philistines;  or.  in  the  other  case,  the  daily  lite''of 
the  student  af^rds  its  hours  of  respite  from  the  insti- 
tutional life- — as  happens  where  tiiere  are  no  commons 
or  large  boarding-houses,  and  the  students  are  scattered 
Cl^rprr^  large  f'^^J  ^^^  ^^^  rpgirlpnt  in  their  own  families 
or  in  small  boarding-houses,  where  thpy  fo^^^  ^nniol 
reMTonFwfEh  the  population  outside  college. 

It  is  interesting  to  investigate  the  educative  effect 
of  the  intense  college  life  in  the  barracks  system  of 
dormitories  and  commons^,  as  compared  with  the  college 
life  which  exists  where  the  students  are  nearly  all  "  day 
pupils.^^ 

W.  T.  Hakris. 

Washington,  D.  C,  September  10,  1901. 


AUTHOE'S  PKEFACE. 


This  volume  aims  to  be  a  general  introduction  to 
the  subject  of  student  life,  and  as  such  presents  only  the 
main  outlines.  The  lack  of  an  extensive  monographic 
literature  treating  critically  of  student  societies  in  the 
different  colleges  and  universities,  prevents,  for  the 
present,  any  more  pretentious  and  exhaustive  work.  If 
the  present  study  shall  stimulate  others  to  fill  the  seri- 
ous gap  which  exists  in  the  literature  of  the  subject,  it 
will  have  accomplished  one  of  its  main  purposes.  It 
is  hoped  that  the  facts  herein  collected  will  be  of  serv- 
ice to  that  group  of  pedagogical  thinkers,  which  since 
the  days  of  Froebel  has  made  spontaneity  the  touch- 
stone of  educational  progress. 

The  author  wishes  to  express  his  sense  of  obligation 
to  all  those  who,  either  in  private  letter  or  by  answer 
to  printed  questionnaire,  have  in  any  way  contributed 
material.  To  Dr.  G.  Stanley  Hall,  of  Clark  University, 
he  is  particularly  indebted  for  criticism  and  stimulation. 
Among  numerous  friends  who  have  been  of  essential 
service,  special  mention  should  be  made  of  Drs.  W.  H. 
Burnham  and  E.  C.  Sanford,  of  Clark  University;  Dr. 
E.  B.  Huey,  Prof.  ^y.  H.  Chambers,  of  Moorhead  Nor- 
mal School;  Dr.  Frederic  E.  Bolton,  of  the  University 
of  Iowa;  Dr.  H.  C.  Moreno,  of  the  Leland  Stanford  Jr. 
University;  and  Mr.  Arthur  M.  Cathcart,  of  Colorado 
Spi'ings. 

Eugene,  Oregon,  Sepfemher  20,  1901. 


CONTEl^TS 


CHAPTER  I. 
STUDENT  LIFE  IX  EUKOPE. 

PAGE 

Section  1.     The  Medieval  Universities       ....      1 
Founding  of  the  early  universities,  1,  2;  asceticism  and  student 
life,  3  ;  amusements,  3-5  ;  initiation  ceremonies,  6 ;  the  "  nations" 
at  Bologna,  8 ;  "  nations  "  at  Paris  and  Oxford,  8  ;  self-governing 
hospicia.or  inns,  8,  9;  the  colleges,  9. 

Section  2.    German  Universities 10 

Nations  and  colleges  in  early  German  universities,  10 ;  student  . 
habits  in  the  lifteenth  century,  11 ;  new  nations  orLandsmann- 
schaften  of  seventeenth  century,  12, 13;  pennalism  described,  13- 
16;  Landsmannschaften  in  eighteenth  century,  16, 17;  the  Kom- 
ment,  17-21 ;  secret,  orders  of  the  eighteenth  century,  21,  22; 
rise  of  the  Burschenschaften,  22;  Wartburg  festival,  22,  23; 
organization  of  general  Burschenschaft,  23-25 ;  factions  in  the 
Burschenschaften,  25-27  ;  murder  of  Kotzcbue,  27 ;  suppression 
and  revival  of  Burschenschaften,  27-30 ;  the  corps  and  its  activ- 
ities, 30-33;  description  of  modern  German  duel,  33,  34;  the 
Wingolf,  34;  the  Free  Societies,  34,  35  ;  general  characterization 
of  German  student  life,  35,  36. 

Section  3.    English  Universities 36 

English  universities  in  the  sixteenth  century,  37;  position  of  the 
college,  38 ;  amusements  of  students  in  seventeenth  century,  38, 
39  ;  student  life  in  the  eighteenth  century,  39  ;  student  clubs  in 
the  eighteenth  century,  39-41 ;  the  social  ideal  in  English  uni- 
versity education,  42,  43;  atmosphere  of  the  English  university, 
43 ;  the  English  college  as  a  social  unit,  44-4G  ;  debating  unions 
and  political  clubs,  46-50 ;  athletics  in  the  English  universities, 
50-53  ;  miscellaneous  clubs,  53,  54. 

.  xvii 


xviii  STUDENT  LIFE  AND   CUSTOMS. 

PAGB 

Section  4.    English  Public  Schools ^^ 

Definition  of  the  term  public  school,  54,  55 ;  traditional  games 
of  the  public  schools,  55,  56  ;  fagging,  56  ;  discipline,  57  ;  morals 
and  religious  condition,  57,  58  ;  experiment  of  Kowland  Hdl,  58, 
59  •  Arnold  as  a  school  reformer,  59-61 ;  modern  house  system, 
61-64  •  athletics  in  public  schools,  64r-68 ;  school  societies,  68, 69 ; 
school  individuality  and  spirit,  69-71 ;  estimate  of  social  disci- 
pline in  public  schools,  71,  72. 

Section  5.    Scottish  Universities '*^ 

Comparison  of  English  and  Scottish  universities,  72, 73 ;  poverty 
and  social  position  of  students,  73, 74 ;  lack  of  refinement  m  stu- 
dent life,  74,  75;  athletics  in  the  early  period,  75,  76;  debatmg 
societies,  76,  77;  student  journalism,  77,  78 ;  change  in  Seottish 
student  life,  78 ;  common  life  and  representative  councils  78, 7  J  ; 
development  of  debating  society  system,  79,  80 ;  miscellaneous 
societies,  81. 

CHAPTER  II. 
STUDENT  LIFE  IN   COLONIAL   COLLEGES. 

81 

Student  Life  in  Colonial  Colleges 

Colonial  colleges  in  reference  to  the  English  university  system, 
81,  82;  social  life  of  colonial  students,  82,  83;  commencements, 
83-  the  growth  of  the  class  as  a  social  unit,  83,  84;  factors  in 
developing  the  class,  84;  freshmen  laws,  85-87;  conditions  of 
discipline,  87-89:  tlic  debating  society,  general  considerations, 
89-92;  debating  societies  of  Yale,  Harvard,  and  Princeton,  92, 93 ; 
literary  exercises  of  the  early  societies,  93,  94. 

CHAPTER  III. 

STUDENT  LIFE  DUKING  THE   KEVOLUTIONAKY   PEEIOD, 

1775-1840. 

Section  1.    Class  System •        • 

Eolations  between  faculty  and  students,  95-97;  nature  of  class 
tie,  97;  hazing  custonas,  97-102;  rushing,  102-105 ;  function  of 
interclais  disorders  in  student  life  of  the  period,  105, 106  ;  con- 
flicts with  faculty,  106-112;  town  and  gown  rows,  112-114; 
ceremonials  of  class  life,  114-119;  societies  within  the  class 
119-122;  class  functions  after  graduation,  122, 123;  closeness  of 
th7  class  tie,  123, 124;  the  class  as  a  factor  in  social  education, 
124,  125. 


95 


CONTENTS.  XIX 

PAGE 

Section  2.    Debating  Society 125 

Influence  of  the  Kevolution,  125, 126  ;  constitutions  of  the  early 
debating  societies,  126, 127  ;  intersociety  rivalry,  127-129  ;  literary 
programmes  and  exercises,  129,  130;  society  libraries,  130, 131; 
social  functions  of  the  debating  societies,  131, 132 ;  general  char- 
acterization of  their  work,  132,  133 ;  causes  of  their  decline  in 
influence,  133-135  ;  objections  of  Whately  to  debating  societies, 
135, 136  ;  criticism  of  C.  A.  Bristed,  136-138  ;  opinion  of  Francis 
A.  Walker,  13S ;  functions  of  the  debating  society  during  this 
period,  139-142. 

Section  3.     Miscellaneous 143 

Fraternity  in  the  Kevolutionaiy  period,  142-145  ;  athletics,  145- 
147  ;  student  self-government,  148-151 ;  college  journalism,  151- 
156;  religious  societies,  156-162;  political  clubs,  162;  military 
organizations,  162,  163;  musical  societies,  163,  164;  scientific 
clubs,  165,  166. 

CHAPTER  lY. 

STUDENT   SOCIETIES    DUKING    THE    TEANSITION    PERIOD, 

1840-1870. 

SECTION  1.    The  Fraternity 167 

^^be  Harvard  system,  167-171 ;  Yale  system,  172-178 ;  anti-fra- 
ternity controversy,  178,  179;  student  opposition,  179;  official 
opposition,  179-181 ;  Kellogg's  "  college  secret  societies,"  181- 
185 ;  Aiken's  "  secret  society  system,"  185-187  ;  Baird's  defence 
of  the  fraternity  system,^87-189 ;  vindication  of  fraternities  by 
Andre\v  V.  Wiiite,  189-191 :  opinion  of  C.  K.  Adams.  191. 192. 

Section  2.    Athletics 192 

General  position,  192;  boating,  192-194;  baseball,  194;  football, 
194, 195. 

CHAPTER  Y. 

STUDENT   SOCIETIES   IN  MODERN  PERIOD,  1870-1900. 

Section  1.    Class 190 

New  forces  in  college  life,  196, 197  ;  present  organization  of  the 
class,  197,  198 ;  class  functions,  198-200 ;  general  position,  200, 
201. 

Section  2.    Debating  Society 201 

Present  position  of  debating  society  in  American  colleges,  201- 
203 ;  new  ideals  of  public  speaking,  203 ;  intercollegiate  oratory. 


XX  STUDENT  LIFE  AND  CUSTOMS. 


203-206 ;  intercollegiate  debating,  206-211 ;  college  instruction 
in  forensics,  212-215. 

SBgrioN  3.     Fraternity 215 

"Change  in  the  character  of  the  fraternity,  215,  216;  the  club 
ideal,  216,  217  ;  sectional  and  other  diti'erences,  217,  218  ;  exten- 
sion of  the  fraternity  idea,  219-221 ;  recent  anti-fraternity  agita- 
tion, 221-224 ;  situation  in  a  typical  Western  university,  225, 226  ; 
membership  and  standing  of  the  fraternities,  226,  227 ;  pan- 
Hellenic  movement,  228 ;  the  fraternity  motif,  228 ;  the  future 
of  the  fraternity,  229. 

Section  4.    Athletics 230 

Kecent  importance  of 'athletics,  230  ;  development  of  boating, 
230,  231;  baseball  as  a  college  sport,  231,  232;  intercollegiate 
football,  232,  233 ;  track  and  field  sports,  233,  234  ;  miscellaneous 
athletic  interests,  234  ;  American  athleticism,  234-236  ;  excessive 
competition,  236-238  ;  over-training,  238,  239  ;  physical  dangers 
of  football,  239-241;  general  result  of  athleticism,  241,  242; 
movement  against  athleticism,  243,  244 ;  gradual  disappearance 
of  athleticism,  244,  245  ;  organization  of  athletics,  245-249 ;  edu- 
cational values  in  student  athletics,  249-253;  proportion  of  stu- 
dents participating  in  athletics,  253,  254;  athletic  accommoda- 
tions, 254,  255. 

Section  5.    Self-governing  Associations      ....  255 

Former  standard  of  student  honour,  255,  256 ;  self-government  at 
the  University  of  Illinois,  257-259 ;  experiment  at  the  University 
of  Maine,  259 ;  the  Amherst  plan,  260,  261 ;  four  types  of  student 
self-governmen'",  261 ;  honour  system  of  college  examinations, 
262-265;  advisory  committees,  265;  student  councils,  265-268; 
Btudent-body  associations,  268-270 ;  general  results  of  student 
self-government,  270,  271. 

Section  6.  Religious  Organizations  among  Students  .  271 
Change  in  the  modern  period,  271 ;  growth  of  college  Y.  M.  C.  A., 
272;  the  organization  of  the  general  and  local  Y.  M.  C.  A.,  272, 
273 ;  membership  and  strength  of  the  Y.  M.  C.  A.,  273-275 ;  the 
international  students'  movement,  275,  276 ;  denominational 
societies,  276 ;  religious  societies  at  Harvard,  276-278 ;  religious 
societies  at  Yale,  278-280;  religious  societies  at  tlie  University 
of  Minnesota,  280-283 ;  student  volunteer  missionary  movement, 
282-284;  criticism,  284;  results  of  the  student  volunteer  move- 
ment, 284-286. 


CONTENTS.  xxi 

CHAPTER  VI. 

STUDENT   SOCIETIES   IN  SECONDARY   SCHOOLS. 

'  PAGE 

bTUDENT  Societies  in  Secondary  Schools      ....  287 

Bibliographical  note,  2S7-2S9  ;  range  of  variation  in  secondary 
schools,  289  ;  student  life  in  large  academies  and  fitting  schools, 
289,  290 ;  conditions  in  city  high  schools,  290,  291 ;  country  high 
schools  and  academies,  291,  292:  social  activities  in  normal 
schools,  292,  293 ;  class  organization  in  secondary  schools,  293- 
295;  the  debating  societies,  295-297;  Greek-letter  fraternities, 
297-299:  athletics,  299,  300;  pupil  government  in  secondary 
schools,  300-304 ;  miscellaneous  societies,  304  ;  opinion  of  prin- 
cipals as  to  value  of  school  societies,  304,  305 ;  danger  from 
exaggeration  of  social  activities,  305,  306. 

APPENDIX-BIBLIOGRAPHY. 
I.  Mediaeval  Period 307  308 

II.   German  Student  Life 308-312 

a.  General,  historical,  and  descriptive,  308,  309. 

b.  Special  treatises,  309,  311. 

c.  Accounts  by  foreigners,  311,  312. 

III.  French  Student  Life 313  313 

IV.  English  Universities 313-317 

a.  General,  descriptive,  and  historical,  313-315. 

b.  Briefer  articles,  315,  316. 

c.  Athletics,  316,  317. 

d.  Debating  unions,  317. 

V.  English  Secondary  Schools         ....   317-322 

a.  General,  historical,  and  descriptive,  317-319. 

b.  Discussion  of  problems,  319-321, 

c.  Athleticism,  321,  322. 

VI.  Scottish  Student  Life 322-324 

Vn.  Student  Life  in  American  Colleges  .        .        .   324r-348 

a.  General  treatises,  324. 

b.  Histories  and  reminiscences  of  particular  colleges,  324-329. 

c.  Class  system,  329-332. 

d.  Debating  societies,  332-335. 


^Iku  student  life  and  customs. 

PAGE 

e.  Fraternity  system,  335-338. 
/.  Athletics,  338-342. 
ff.  Student  self-government,  342-344. 
h.  Student  press,  344-346. 
i.  Miscellaneous  societies,  346-348. 

VIII.  Student  Life  in  American  Secondary  Schools.  349-351 

Index 353 


STUDENT   LIFE   AND   CUSTOMS. 


CHAPTER  I. 

studext  life  in  eukope. 

§  1.  Student  Life  in  the  Medieval  Univeesities. 

FrOjM  the  fifth  to  the  tenth  centuries  culture  in 
western  Europe  was  on  the  defensive.  The  invasions 
of  the  fierce  northern  barbarians,  by  destroying  the 
material  basis  of  civilization,  made  the  independent 
pursuit  of  science  and  philosophy  impossible.  Learn- 
ing was  confined  to  the  rudiments  of  knowledge  neces- 
sary for  church  services;  education  became  a  mere  in- 
strument of  the  ecclesiastical  regiine.  The  monasteries 
and  cathedral  schools  were  the  chief  centres  of  instruc- 
tion. The  so-called  educational  revivals  of  this  period, 
in  England  under  the  Northumbrian  kings  and  Alfred, 
and  in  Gaul  under  Charlemagne,  are  more  properly  con- 
ceived as  church  reformations.  There  could  be  no  real 
(v^  student  life,  because  no  student  class  as  separate  from 
0  the  clergy  existed,  and  because  the  spirit  of  freedom  was 
wholly  absent  from  the  scholastic  centres. 

By  the  beginning  of  the  eleventh  century  the  posi- 
tive forces  of  society,  government,  law,  order,  gained 
the  ascendancy,  and  there  followed  a  reawakening  of 
the  European  mind,  which  was  as  true  a  Eenaissance 
as  the  more  brilliant  movement  of  the  fifteenth  cen- 
tury. In  northern  Europe,  the  seat  of  theological  in- 
terest, the  new  spirit  of  speculation  busied  itself  in 
1  1 


STUDENT  LIFE  AND  CUSTOMS. 

examining  the  foundations  of  current  beliefs.  Peter 
Abelard  originated  the  dialectical  method  of  inquiry 
and  teaching  which  in  the  course  of  a  century  shifted 
the  basis  of  thought  within  the  Church  from  mysticism 
and  authority  to  rationalism.  In  southern  Europe, 
particularly  in  the  communes  of  northern  Italy,  the 
traditions  of  the  old  empire  still  possessed  the  imagina- 
tions of  men.  The  awakened  interest  in  consequence 
took  a  secular  rather  than  a  rationalistic  tendency, 
civil  law  supplanted  theology  as  the  chief  subject  of 
interest. 

During  the  early  stages  of  the  awakenment  fixed 
curricula  and  standard  institutions  of  learning  were 
equally  lacking;  scholars  wandered  from  master  to 
mjaster  and  from  subject  to  subject  at  will.  They  were 
not  bound  to  spend  a  fixed  number  of  years  on  any  one 
branch  of  knowledge,  or  in  any  one  city.  By  degrees, 
however,  the  most  famous  teachers,  like  Abelard  or 
Irnerius,  gathered  their  pupils  about  them  in  some  cen- 
tral location,  which  in  time  necessitated  regulations 
between  master  and  scholar,  student  and  townspeople. 
The  fame  of  the  educational  centre  or  "  studium  gen- 
erale ''  grew,  its  rules  from  mere  regulations  became 
rigid  laws,  and  eventually  the  recognition  of  Pope  or 
sovereign  constituted  the  institution  a  university. 
Thus  the  universities  of  the  twelfth  and  thirteenth  cen- 
turies were  the  natural  products  of  a  popular  thirst  for 
knowledge,  and  were  democratic  in  their  organization 
and  conception.  Such  were  Bologna  and  its  daughter 
universities  in  Italy,  Paris  and  Montpellier  in  France, 
Oxford  and  Cambridge  in  England.  In  the  later  medias- 
val  period,  the  fourteenth  and  fifteenth  centuries,  uni- 
versities owed  their  foundation  to  authority,  usually  to 
kings  or  bishops.  Among  the  institutions  of  this  class 
may  be  enumerated  the  universities  of  Scotland,  Spain 
(chiefly),  Scandinavia,  Germany,  and  eastern  Europe. 


STUDENT  LIFE  IN  EUROPE.  3 

While  the  medigeval  universities  were  the  outgrowth 
of  a  free  spirit  of  inquiry  which  tended  to  be  either 
secular  or  rationalistic,  they  were  at  the  same  time 
Church  institutions,  and  their  students  clerks  or  priests. 
Placed  in  such  intimate  relations  with  the  Church  at  a 
time  when  the  latter  dominated  the  spiritual  life  of 
man,  the  universities  were  greatly  influenced  by  the 
ideals  of  mediaeval  Christianity.  Nowhere  is  this  influ- 
ence more  apparent  than  in  their  student  life.  Asceti- 
cism was  the  professed  rule  of  life  of  the  priest  and  the 
monk,  so  it  was  the  prevailing  theory  in  the  discipline  of 
those  they  trained.  Other-worldliness  demanded  the 
subjection  of  the  flesh,  and  so  the  mediaeval  school 
starved  and  flogged  its  students  into  submission.  A  cele- 
brated college  of  the  University  of  Paris,  in  the  time  of 
Erasmus,  deliberately  aimed  to  crush  the  spirit  of  its 
students  by  inflicting  upon  them  almost  impossible  sani- 
tary conditions.  Not  infrequently  the  iron  discipline 
provoked  outbreaks  which  cost  the  teachers  their  lives. 
The  physical  conditions  of  life  were  hard.  The  stu- 
dent^s  quarters  were  devoid  of  comfort  and  in  winter 
scarcely  tenantable.  There  was  no  fireplace  or  stove  in 
his  room,  and  the  wind  whistled  through  the  loosely  built 
casement.  Students  were  not  permitted  to  go  beyond 
the  walls  of  their  colleges  without  official  attendance, 
and  if  convicted  of  an  infringement  of  the  rules  they 
were  soundly  birched.  This  description  applies  only  to 
the  later,  more  organized  period  of  university  life  (four- 
teenth and  fifteenth  centuries).  During  earlier  cen- 
turies the  students  were  left  to  themselves,  with  no  at- 
tempt at  discipline,  and  the  wildest  license  prevailed. 

The  strength  of  the  ascetic  ideal  is  seen  in  the  ab- 
sence of  authorized  or  respectable  amusements.  Ath- 
letic games  were  not  only  absent,  but  they  were  abso- 
lutely prohibited,  and  violations  of  this  rule  were  more 
severely  punished  than  actual  crimes.     Playing  with  the 


4  STUDENT  LIFE  AND  CUSTOMS. 

bat  and  ball,  chess,  the  use  of  musical  instruments, 
dancing,  the  keeping  of  unclean  birds  and  beasts,  were 
all  forbidden  by  college  statutes.  Only  at  rare  intervals 
do  we  find  an  exception  to  the  general  practice,  such  as 
the  rule  at  the  University  of  Cambridge,  which  required 
each  student  to  take  a  daily  walk  with  a  single  com- 
panion in  imitation  of  the  apostles.  The  sports  and 
pastimes  of  the  small  minority  of  the  students  who  in- 
dulged themselves  were  of  a  lawless  character,  and  in 
direct  contravention  of  the  statutes — such,  for  instance, 
as  cockfighting,  the  use  of  the  crossbow,  the  keeping 
of  falcons,  and  fishing  in  streams  belonging  to  other 
corporations.  The  only  source  of  legitimate  enjoyment 
was  derived  from  wdiat  Professor  Eashdall  has  charac- 
terized as  "  ecclesiastical  dissipation  " — that  is,  story- 
telling and  feasts  on  saints'  days. 

From  the  absence  of  the  ordinary  means  of  enjoy- 
ment it  must  not  be  imagined  that  the  mediaeval  stu- 
dents were  a  mild-mannered  and  law-abiding  class.  On 
the  contrary,  the  violence  and  lawlessness  which  charac- 
terized mediEeval  life  in  general  reached  its  highest 
expression  in  the  university.  Under  the  protection  of 
their  clerical  tonsure,  the  students  of  Paris  attacked 
and  slew  passers-by,  carried  off  the  women,  ravished  the 
virgins,  committed  robberies,  and  broke  into  houses. 
Over  and  over  again  at  Oxford  occurs  the  dismal  record 
that  certain  jurors  swear  that  a  monk  or  clerk  killed  A 
or  B,  citizen  or  clerk,  with  a  sword,  poleaxe,  or  knife, 
and  has  fled.  Such  violence  was  not  confined  to  turbu- 
lent freshmen  and  young  aristocrats,  but  masters  of  arts, 
monks,  friars,  beneficed  clergymen,  and  heads  of  col- 
leges were  involved  in  street  brawls  and  assaults. 

Such  turbulence  culminated  in  systematic  conflicts 
between  the  students  and  the  population  among  whom 
they  were  situated,  known  as  town  and  gown  rows.  The 
dimensions  and  nature  of  these  collisions  may  be  seen 


STUDENT  LIFE  IN  EUROPE.  5 

from  the  following  typical  cases:  In  the  thirteenth  cen- 
tury a  long-standing  feud  existed  between  the  Parisian 
scholars  and  the  monastery  of  St.  Germain  concerning 
the  ownership  of  a  piece  of  ground.  On  one  occasion 
the  provost  of  the  monastery,  surrounded  by  his  armed 
retainers,  set  upon  the  unarmed  and  defenceless  boys 
and  masters  and  belaboured  them  with  clubs,  swords, 
and  iron-tipped  staves.  Many  of  the  students  were 
badly  wounded,  some  mortally,  but  were  nevertheless 
dragged  off  to  the  horrible  dungeons  of  the  abbey.  In 
1345  a  party  of  Oxford  students,  disliking  the  wine  set 
before  them  at  an  inn,  hurled  a  pewter  mug  at  the  head 
of  the  innkeeper,  who  thereupon  appealed  to  his  fellow- 
townsmen  for  redress.  The  bells  of  the  city  are  sounded, 
both  sides  appear  on  the  streets  fully  armed  and  fight 
during  the  remainder  of  the  day  without  seriously  injur- 
ing each  other.  The  next  day  a  horde  of  two  thousand 
rustics  enter  the  city,  overcome  opposition,  pillage  the 
halls  of  the  students,  killing  and  wounding  the  scholars, 
tearing  their  books  to  pieces,  and  in  some  instances  fir- 
ing the  buildings.  The  countrymen  manifested  their  ha- 
tred of  the  clergy  by  flaying  off  the  crowns  (all  the  skin 
as  far  as  the  tonsure)  of  their  victims  and  by  mutilating 
their  bodies.  The  fugitives  were  beaten  and  wounded 
clinging  to  the  very  altars  of  the  churches.  For  its  share 
in  this  uprising  the  king  deprived  the  city  of  Oxford 
of  the  most  important  of  its  civic  rights.  Affairs  of  this 
type  were  of  frequent  occurrence  in  the  history  of  the 
mediaeval  university.  At  times  the  feeling  of  animosity 
between  town  and  gown  reached  such  a  pitch  that  the 
students  migrated  to  another  locality. 

The  more  jovial  side  of  student  life  is  seen  in  the 
drinking  customs  and  initiation  ceremonies.  No  impor- 
tant event  could  take  place  without  being  made  the  oc- 
casion of  a  drinking  bout.  Nearly  all  the  minor  steps 
of  advance  in  the  career  of  a  university  man  were  celc- 


6  STUDENT  LIFE  AND  CUSTOMS. 

brated  by  parties  and  feasts  given  by  the  successful  and 
elated  candidates.  During  the  longer  disputations,  the 
need  of  refreshment  was  likely  to  be  felt  during  its 
progress  as  well  as  at  the  conclusion. 

The  custom  of  initiation  has  been  one  of  the  most 
widespread  and  popular  student  usages  in  all  ages.  It 
"  gratified  the  bullying  instinct,  the  social  instinct,  and 
the  desire  to  find  at  once  the  excuse  and  means  of  a 
carousal "  (Eashdall).  During  this  period  the  loose 
custom  grew  into  a  stereotyped  form.  In  the  quaint 
allegory  of  the  time,  the  freshman  is  a  wild  beast  who 
must  be  tamed  before  he  is  permitted  to  enter  refined 
circles.  Dressed  to  represent  a  wild  boar,  the  bejaunus 
(yellow-bill),  as  the  newcomer  was  nicknamed,  meets 
two  students  who  are  investigating  the  sources  of  cer- 
tain abominable  odours.  They  chaff  the  victim  about 
the  wild  glare  of  his  eye,  the  length  of  his  ear,  and  the 
ferocious  aspect  of  his  tusks.  Then  comes  the  deposi- 
tion (middle  Latin  depositio,  or  laying  off,  of  the  animal 
attributes)  or  taming  :  the  freshman's  face  is  smeared 
with  soap,  his  ears  are  clipped,  his  beard  cut,  and  his 
tusks  removed  with  a  saw.  Finally,  he  makes  a  mock 
confession  of  sins,  and  receives  absolution  only  on  condi- 
tion that  he  provides  a  magnificent  banquet  for  his 
tormentors.  In  southern  France  the  initiation  of  the 
bejauni  took  the  form  of  a  criminal  trial,  and  was 
marked  by  drunkenness  and  immorality.  At  first  the 
academic  authorities  endeavoured  to  suppress  the  ini- 
tiation ceremonies,  but  later  the  custom  gained  their 
sanction  and  support. 

The  student  organizations  of  the  middle  ages  differ 
from  those  of  the  modern  period  in  being  to  a  very 
slight  extent  the  manifestation  of  the  play  instinct. 
They  grew  out  of  the  actual  material  needs  of  their  con- 
stituency. The  typical  organization  of  the  first  spon- 
taneous, democratic  period  of  student  life  is  the  "na- 


STUDENT  LIFE  IN  EUROPE.  7 

tion,"  which,  in  its  essentials,  may  be  conceived  of  as  a 
guild  of  students.  The  rise  of  the  nation  may  be  ac- 
counted for  in  the  following  manner:  Numbers  of  young 
men  of  good  position  found  themselves  in  a  strange 
city  without  political  rights — a  serious  condition  of 
affairs  in  the  twelfth  century.  The  authority  of  the 
empire  was  so  uncertain  that  each  city  or  district  exer- 
cised the  powers  of  life  and  death  over  its  inhabitants. 
To  be  deprived  of  citizenship  meant  a  serious  menace 
to  life  and  property,  so  the  students  associated  them- 
selves together  in  order  to  create  an  artificial  citizen- 
ship to  take  the  place  of  the  natural  citizenship  which 
they  had  relinquished  in  leaving  their  own  cities.  The 
contemporary  guild  movement  favoured  the  legal  recog- 
nition of  such  a  claim,  and  the  students'  power  of  mi- 
gration secured  the  consent  of  the  locality.  At  Bologna 
the  students,  owing  to  the  narrow  commercial  policy 
of  the  masters,  gained  the  upper  hand  and  exercised 
great  authority^  as  they  were  able  to  subject  disobedient 
members  to  public  infamy.  The  two  great  divisions  of 
Bologna  were  the  cismontanes  with  seventeen  nations 
and  the  ultramontanes  with  sixteen  nations;  the  po- 
litical functions  belonged  to  the  two  great  divisions, 
while  the  smaller  national  associations  were  clubs  for 
the  mutual  assistance  and  recreation  of  the  members. 
Each  nation  elected  tw^o  proctors,  who  tended  the  sick, 
supported  the  needy,  managed  funerals,  and  settled  all 
quarrels  which  threatened  to  become  serious.  The 
nation,  in  the  institution  of  its  origin  and  greatest 
strength,  may  be  described  in  modern  terms  as  a  trades 
union  of  students. 

The  national  organization  was  stronger  in  Italy 
than  elsewhere;  in  no  other  European  country  were  the 
students  able  to  wield  the  same  influence.  At  Paris  the 
nations  originated  1219-21  a.  d.,  but  membership  was 
confined  to  the  masters  of  arts.     Here  there  were  four 


8  STUDENT   LIFE  AND  CUSTOMS. 

chief  divisions — the  French,  Normans,  Picards,  and 
English  (afterward  called  Germans).  In  the  faculty 
of  arts  all  voting  was  by  the  natural  units.  The  na- 
tions of  Oxford  were  much  less  important  than  those 
of  Paris.  At  a  very  early  date  Oxford  may  have  had 
a  fourfold  division  in  imitation  of  Paris;  the  archives, 
however,  record  only  two  nations  during  the  historic 
period,  the  northerners  and  southerners,  Boreales  and 
Australes.  By  1274  the  two  divisions  had  become 
amalgamated,  and  the  two  proctors  of  the  University  of 
Oxford  are  the  only  reminder  of  their  existence.  The 
nations  remained  in  Scotland  until  the  nineteenth  cen- 
tury (Aberdeen),  and  even  to  the  present  day  exhibit 
considerable  vigour  at  the  University  of  Helsingfors  in 
Finland. 

Another  instrumentality  of  student  self-govern- 
ment, particularly  important  at  Oxford  and  Paris,  were 
the  Jiospitia  or  inns.  Early  in  the  history  of  the  uni- 
versities it  became  necessary  to  set  apart  certain  houses 
or  halls  exclusively  for  student  use.  With  large  num- 
bers of  boys  and  youths,  packed  together  in  a  very  nar- 
row space,  the  exigencies  of  the  case  imperatively  de- 
manded some  sort  of  control.  At  first,  the  body  of 
scholars  in  the  hospitia  formed  an  independent  demo- 
cratic community,  which  elected  a  principal  and  in- 
Tested  him  with  certain  limited  powers.  In  the  course 
of  time  the  university  authorities  stepped  in  and  sup- 
ported the  authority  of  the  principal.  The  government 
of  the  hospitia  from  a  republic  became  first  a  limited 
and  then  an  absolute  monarchy.  The  interference  of 
the  chancellor  in  the  internal  affairs  of  the  hospitia 
seems,  however,  to  have  been  necessary  to  guarantee 
their  financial  integrity.  The  early  regulations  respect 
the  independence  of  community  life,  and  merely  pro- 
vide that  each  inn  shall  give  security  for  rent  in  ad- 
vance to  the  chancellor  and  empower  that  official  to 


STUDENT  LIFE  IN  EUROPE.  9 

choose  between  rival  candidates  for  the  principalship. 
Gradually  the  chancellor  assumed  the  authority  of  re- 
moving offending  principals  and  forbade  the  hospitia 
to  receive  students  under  the  ban  of  the  university. 
Finally,  the  principalship  of  the  hospitium  was  restricted 
to  graduates.  Under  the  name  of  halls,  a  few  survivals 
of  the  old  hospitia  survive  at  Oxford  and  Cambridge. 
Since  the  civil  war  of  the  seventeenth  century  they  have 
been  an  unimportant  element  in  the  life  of  the  English 
universities.  The  facts  relating  to  them  during  the 
mediaeval  period  are  so  few  that  one  is  unable  to  esti- 
mate their  influence  on  the  student  life  of  the  times. 

The  early  colleges  of  Oxford  and  Paris  were  simply 
endowed  hospitia;  their  founders  aimed  to  secure  board 
and  lodging  for  poor  students,  who  were  unable  to  sup- 
port themselves,  and  adopted  the  common  life  of  the 
hospitia  as  the  best  means  of  securing  this  end.  The 
dependence  on  the  endowment  deprived  the  collegian 
of  the  freedom  before  exercised  and  made  strict  dis- 
cipline possible.  The  college  offered  unusual  peda- 
gogical advantages  to  the  student  in  the  form  of  oppor- 
tunities for  Latin  conversation  and  disputations,  and  in 
equipping  libraries  for  his  use.  Because  of  these  ad- 
vantages, it  came  to  pass  that  by  the  fifteenth  century 
the  colleges  at  the  University  of  Paris  and  the  English 
universities  gave  most  of  the  instruction.  From  their 
inception,  however,  the  English  colleges  were  inde- 
pendent, self-perpetuating  corporations,  while  the  col- 
leges of  Paris  were  subject  to  the  inspection  of  univer- 
sity authorities.  The  early  Oxford  colleges  inherited 
much  of  the  free  democratic  spirit  of  the  hospitia,  the 
students  participating  in  the  government  to  a  consid- 
erable degree. 


10  STUDENT   LIFE  AND  CUSTOMS. 

§  2.  Student  Societies  at  the  German  Universities. 

The  earliest  German  universities,  Prague  and  Vi- 
enna, were  founded  in  the  fourteenth  century,  and 
reproduced  many  features  of  the  University  of  Paris, 
including  the  division  of  the  students  into  four  nations. 
This  national  organization  was  the  cause  of  an  impor- 
tant migration  of  students  and  professors  from  the  Uni- 
versity of  Prague.  In  Bohemia,  then  as  now,  the  Czech 
and  German  were  arrayed  against  each  other.  In  three 
nations  the  German  element  predominated  and  was  able 
to  outvote  the  Bohemians  on  questions  of  university  pol- 
icy. Eestive  under  such  a  condition  of  inferiority  in 
their  own  seat  of  learning,  the  Bohemians  in  1409, 
under  the  leadership  of  John  Huss  and  Jerome  of 
Prague,  petitioned  the  king  to  so  alter  the  constitution 
of  the  university  that  in  the  future  the  position  of  the 
two  factions  would  be  reversed,  the  Germans  possessing 
one  vote,  the  Bohemians  three.  Fearing  the  royal  de- 
cision, five  thousand  German  students  deserted  Prague 
for  Leipsic,  where  the  division  into  four  nations  was 
continued.  From  this  time  on,  however,  the  national 
organization  was  discouraged  in  the  German  universities 
because  of  the  factional  quarrels  and  disturbances  which 
it  provoked. 

In  the  fifteenth  century  the  college  (or  boarding 
house  for  students)  succeeded  the  nation  as  the  chief 
unit  of  student  organization  in  the  German  universi- 
ties. Inaugurated,  as  in  England  and  France,  to  extend 
aid  to  needy  students,  the  German  colleges  or  hursce 
rapidly  degenerated  and  came  to  be  considered  mere 
hives  of  drones.  The  great  power  vested  in  the  au- 
thorities for  disciplinary  purposes  degenerated  to 
tyranny,  and  was  bitterly  resented  by  the  students.  So 
strong  was  this  popular  antagonism  in  Germany  that 
the   first   breath    of   humanism   at   the   beginning    of 


STUDENT  LIFE  IN  EUROPE.  H 

the  sixteenth  century  was  sufficient  to  overthrow  the 
colleges. 

During  the  fifteenth  and  sixteenth  centuries  the 
habits  of  the  German  students  w^ere — if  we  can  judge 
from  the  statutes — fully  as  bad  as  those  of  the  Parisian 
pupils.  The  early  Vienna  laws  forbade  the  student 
from  spending  more  time  in  drinking,  fighting,  and 
guitar-playing  than  in  physics,  logic,  and  the  regular 
lectures.  All  persons  in  the  university  convicted  of 
drunkenness,  of  following  lew^d  women,  of  insulting 
citizens,  or  habitual  gambling,  were  condemned  to  lose 
their  academic  privileges.  It  was  found  necessary  to 
insert  an  express  provision  against  ribaldry  and  inde- 
cent gestures  at  the  disputations.  In  the  sixteenth  cen- 
tury laws  almost  identical  with  these  were  found  neces- 
sary. The  statutes  denounce  the  folly  of  youths  who 
imagine  the  university  a  "  place  of  unbridled  license, 
and  who  by  bad  example  ruin  others;  who  destroy  quiet 
and  studious  industry,  disobey  the  rector,  do  not  attend 
church;  wander  about  by  day  and  night,  stirring  up 
disturbances,  breaking  into  houses,  robbing  gardens, 
committing  thefts,  and  wantonly  insulting  and  injuring 
others.^^  The  words  of  Melanchthon  verify  the  testi- 
mony of  the  laws:  "  Never  w^ere  youth  so  hostile  to  the 
laws;  they  are  resolved  to  live  according  to  their  own 
decrees  and  not  to  regard  the  will  of  God  ";  they  should 
know  "  that  universities  were  not  intended  to  assemble 
young  men  of  leisure  for  the  purpose  of  amusing  them- 
selves and  gambling.'^ 

Pennalism  (pennal,  German,  from  middle  Latin 
pennale,  a  box  of  pens  carried  at  the  belt  of  the  fresh- 
man student;  a  name  for  the  newly  entered  students 
and  for  the  humiliating  servitude  (fagging)  to  which 
they  are  subjected  by  the  men  of  the  upper  classes),  that 
greatest  of  the  perversions  of  German  student  life, 
which  systematized  all  the  degrading  elements  in  previ- 


12  STUDENT  LIFE  AND   CUSTOMS. 

ous  conditions,  came  in  with  the  seventeenth  century, 
and  flourished  in  the  confusion  and  savagery  of  the 
Tliirty  Years'  War.  It  grew  out  of  the  custom,  inno- 
cent in  itself,  of  student  initiation  or  "  deposition " 
which  we  have  previously  described  in  the  section  on 
medigeval  student  life.  In  the  sixteenth  century  the 
deposition  was  not  merely  a  piece  of  buffoonery  in- 
vented by  the  students,  but  was  an  officially  author- 
ized ceremony.  A  statute  of  the  University  of  Erfurt 
required  the  deposition  for  matriculation.  The  chief 
Protestant  reformers  participated  in  the  celebration  of 
the  rite.  Said  Luther  on  one  occasion,  "  This  annoy- 
ance accustoms  children  from  their  youth  to  endurance, 
and  he  who  can  not  endure  and  listen  to  anything  will 
not  do  for  a  preacher  or  a  governor.'^  At  another  initia- 
tion, "  This  deposition  of  ours  is  only  a  figure  and  a 
picture  of  human  life  in  all  manner  of  ill  fortune, 
trouble,  and  discipline.'^  To  the  mind  of  Melanchthon 
it  was  a  reminder  of  the  continuous  necessity  of  pa- 
tience; to  another  the  aim  of  the  ceremony  was  the 
admonishment  of  conceited  students  in  such  a  way  that 
they  might  realize  "  how  trifling  their  learning  is  and 
how  much  they  have  yet  to  learn.'' 

The  perversion  of  the  "  deposition  "  came  from  its 
connection  with  the  new  nations,  organizations  which 
had  nothing  in  common  with  the  medieval  nations  ex- 
cept the  name  and  the  principle  of  membership  by  local- 
ity. The  mediaBval  nations  were  openly  established  and 
recognised  corporations  which  elected  officials  and  took 
part  in  the  government  of  the  university.  The  seven- 
teenth century  nations  were  secret  societies  of  irrespon- 
sible students,  formed  in  the  teeth  of  the  authorities. 
The  new  system  of  secret  societies  was  the  common  pos- 
session of  all  the  German  universities;  the  nations  in 
tlie  different  academic  centres  were  in  league  with  each 
other;  a  notorious  member  expelled  from  one  university 


STUDENT  LIFE  IN  EUROPE.  13 

was  immediately  welcomed  by  his  brethren  elsewhere. 
The  nations  developed  a  peculiar  code  of  honour  which 
considered  all  those  dishonourable  who  revealed  any 
portion  of  their  proceedings  to  the  authorities,  and 
visited  heavy  punishment  on  all  such  offenders.  Each 
nation  was  regularly  organized  with  its  seniors,  direct- 
ors, fiscal  department,  and  even  beadles,  who  held 
office  some  for  a  longer  some  for  a  shorter  term. 
Newcomers  were  cited  to  appear  before  the  court  of 
the  nation,  and  were  fined  for  their  offences  in  money 
and  entertainment. 

Taking  advantage  of  the  apprenticeship  which  the 
freshmen  were  supposed  to  serve  before  deposition,  the 
older  students,  or  schorists  (because  they  cut  oft*  the 
hair  of  the  freshmen),  inveigled  the  unfortunate 
strangers  into  their  organizations,  where  they  were  re- 
duced to  a  state  that  bordered  on  penal  servitude.  On 
arriving  at  the  university  the  freshmen  were  waited  on 
by  reprcocntatives  of  the  national  brothers  and  asked: 
"  Will  you  come  to  the  magnificus  and  promise  to  obey 
him  in  all  proper  things?  "\Ye  advise  you  to  arrange 
matters  so  that  you  will  thank  us  for  your  lives.  Fol- 
low our  advice  with  cheerfulness,  or  3'ou  will  have  to 
follow  it  in  sorrow;  join  yourselves  to  the  nation — a 
year  soon  goes  by — lest  they  treat  you  so  that  you  will 
have  cause  to  curse  them  all  your  lives."  If  threats 
fail  to  make  the  desired  impression,  the  new  students 
are  told  of  the  love  and  friendship  to  which,  after  the 
manner  of  the  ancient  Epicureans,  the  nations  are  de- 
voted. The  members  speak  of  the  vows  of  eternal  obli- 
gation which  they  have  sworn  to  each  other.  Such  was 
the  pressure  brought  to  bear  on  newcomers  that  few 
were  able  to  escape  this  year  of  penal  servitude. 

Once  a  member,  the  unfortunate  pennal,  as  the 
freshman  was  called,  soon  had  his  visions  of  Epicurean 
happiness  rudely  shattered.     He  was  attached  to  some 


14  STUDENT  LIFE  AND  CUSTOMS. 

older  student,  whose  behests  he  was  compelled  to  obey. 
The  seniors  forced  the  pennals  to  copy  all  sorts  of  writ- 
ing, to  wait  on  their  master's  guests,  to  go  on  errands 
ten  and  twenty  miles  and  even  farther.  If  the  master 
became  stupidly  drunk,  the  novice  must  not  flinch  or 
budge  from  him,  but  must  remain  close  at  hand  and 
serve  him,  helping  him  along  the  street  if  need  be. 
Should  the  senior  be  ill,  the  juniors  wait  on  him  by 
turns,  so  that  he  need  never  be  alone;  should  he  desire 
music,  the  junior  must  play  all  night  long  to  please  his 
idle  whim.  The  pennal  must  suffer  blows  and  shameful 
personal  abuse  Avithout  protest,  and  "  let  the  other  work 
his  entire  will  upon  him  as  if  he  were  nothing  but  a 
dog.''  The  juniors  must  preserve  silence,  or  they  will 
never  be  absolved  and  permitted  to  become  students; 
this  prospect  terrifies  them  into  submission.  At  the 
end  of  the  pennal  year  an  absolution  feast  was  served 
which  often  took  the  little  hoard. which  had  been  de- 
signed by  frugal  care  to  carry  the  student  through  the 
university.  After  one  generation  of  older  students  had 
established  complete  authority  over  the  freshmen  and 
kept  them  for  a  year  in  servitude,  the  custom  was  diffi- 
cult to  break  up,  because  the  degradation  was  only  en- 
dured in  the  hope  that  after  the  pennal  year  was  over 
the  sufferers  might  have  their  turn  in  tyrannizing  over 
the  new  freshmen. 

The  greatest  evil  of  pennalism  lay  in  the  fact  that 
it  made  all  sorts  of  excesses  possible  by  uniting  the  stu- 
dents in  a  close  league  against  the  authorities.  A  writer 
of  the  time  has  left  us  a  vivid  description  of  the  sad  state 
of  affairs  which  resulted  from  student  license :  "  Mean- 
while I  saw  a  great  chamber,  a  common  lodging  room 
or  museum,  or  study,  or  beer-shop,  or  wine-shop,  or  ball- 
room, or  harlot's  establishment.  In  truth,  I  can  not  say 
what  it  was,  for  I  saw  all  these  things.  It  was  swarming 
full  of  students.     The  most  eminent  of  them  sat  at  a 


STUDENT  LIFE  IN  EUROPE.  15 

table  and  drank  to  each  other  until  their  eyes  turned  in 
their  heads  like  those  of  a  stuck  calf.  One  drank  to 
another  from  a  dish,  out  of  a  shoe;  one  ate  glass,  an- 
other dirt,  a  third  drank  from  a  dish  where  there  were 
all  sorts  of  food — enough  to  make  one  sick  to  see  it. 
One  gave  another  his  hand;  they  asked  each  other^s 
names  and  promised  to  be  friends  and  brothers  forever, 
with  the  addition  of  this  clause,  '  I  will  do  what  is 
pleasant  to  you  and  avoid  what  is  unpleasant.'  So  each 
would  tie  a  string  off  his  leather  breeches  to  the  many- 
colored  doublet  of  the  other.  But  those  with  whom 
another  refused  to  drink  acted  like  a  madman  or  a 
devil,  sprang  up  as  high  as  they  could  for  anger,  tore 
out  their  hair  in  their  eagerness  to  avenge  such  an  in- 
sult, threw  glasses  in  each  other's  faces,  out  with  their 
swords  and  at  each  other's  heads,  until  here  and  there 
one  fell  down  and  lay  there;  and  such  quarrels  I  saw 
between  close  friends  and  blood  relatives  with  devilish 
rage  and  anger.  Others  drank  to  each  other  off  seats 
and  benches,  or  off  the  table  or  the  floor,  under  their 
arms,  under  their  legs,  with  the  cup  under  them,  over 
them,  behind  them,  or  before  them.  Others  lay  on 
the  floor  and  let  it  be  poured  into  them  as  into  a  fun- 
nel." *  Such  disorders  were  not  always  confined  to  any 
one  such  feast,  but  were  continued  for  days  together  at 
meals  and  lectures,  publicly,  privately,  and  even  in  the 
public  streets.  Occasionally  there  were  bolder  out- 
breaks with  all  sorts  of  outrageous  howls,  the  breaking 
into  houses  and  windows  and  the  like. 

During  the  Thirty  Years'  War  the  prevailing  con- 
fusion prevented  any  effective  legislation  against  pen- 
nalism.     The  action  of  any  one  state  simply  resulted  in 

*  From  the  pseudonymous  Philander  von  Sittewald,  quoted 
by  Karl  von  Raumer,  and  translated  in  Barnard's  Journal,  vol. 
vi,  pp.  44,  45. 


16  STUDENT  LIFE  AND  CUSTOMS. 

driving  students  from  its  universities  into  the  neigh- 
bouring territories.  In  1660  all  the  Protestant  king- 
doms and  duchies  united  in  an  effort  to  crush  the  prac- 
tice. They  succeeded  in  driving  the  evil  below  the  sur- 
face, and  in  putting  a  stop  to  any  open  manifestations 
and  to  its  most  flagrant  violations.  The  nations,  al- 
though forbidden  by  edicts,  still  existed  under  an 
altered  name,  and  with  them  many  of  the  usages  and 
the  code  of  honour  engendered  by  pennalism.  Through- 
out the  eighteenth  century  outcroppings  of  pennalistic 
practices  appeared  from  time  to  time.  They  were  spe- 
cifically forbidden  at  Gottingen  in  1757,  and  Kiel  in 
1774.  It  was  not  until  the  great  uprising  of  German 
students  which  followed  the  War  of  Liberation  that 
pennalism  was  finally  extinguished  on  German  soil. 

The  important  student  organizations  of  Germany  in 
the  eighteenth  century  were  the  Landsmannscliaften 
(clubs  of  students  from  the  same  province),  lineal  suc- 
cessors to  the  nations  of  the  previous  century  and  the 
secret  student  orders  which  were  fashioned  on  the  rites 
of  freemasonry.  As  all  such  organizations  of  students 
were  strictly  forbidden,  it  is  impossible  to  trace  their 
development,  although  we  have  abundant  evidence  of 
their  subterranean  existence  at  the  different  German 
university  centres.  At  intervals  they  come  to  light 
through  connection  with  some  student  prank  or  out- 
rage, and  are  forthwith  forbidden  by  law.  Such  re- 
scripts against  the  Landsmannschaften  appeared  at 
Leipsic  in  1680,  Halle  1717,  Rostock  1730,  Jena  1765, 
Gottingen  1762,  Kiel  1774,  and  Erlangen  1794,  but  were 
absolutely  without  the  results  expected.  In  fact,  the 
Landsmannschaften  flourished  on  prohibitions  and  offi- 
cial opposition;  decrees  of  abolition  were  probably  one 
of  the  great  sources  of  their  strength,  because  they  gave 
additional  zest  to  the  enterprise.  On  entering  a  Lands- 
mannschaft,  the   candidate  promised  never  to  reveal 


STUDENT  LIFE  IN  EUROPE.  17 

what  at  any  time  happened  within  the  society,  to  be 
always  watchful  against  the  renoncers  (students  belong- 
ing to  no  society),  and  to  conceal  the  existence  of  the 
society.  If  questioned  by  the  authorities,  a  society 
man  must  lie  stoutly  and  give  up,  if  need  be,  his  exist- 
ence at  the  university  for  the  sake  of  the  society. 

Without  making  a  further  attempt  to  trace  the  his- 
tory of  the  separate  organizations  or  of  the  societies  at 
particular  universities,  the  writer  will  sketch  the  salient 
features  of  the  Landsmannschaften  as  they  existed  at  the 
end  of  the  eighteenth  century.  At  each  university 
there  existed  a  group  of  societies  bound  together  in  a 
loose  sort  of  federation  through  participation  in  a  com- 
mon code  of  laws  known  as  the  Komment.  This  con- 
stitution provided  that  no  society  could  be  organized 
without  the  consent  of  those  already  existing,  or  could 
a  society  be  extinguished  without  the  unanimous  con- 
sent of  all  the  remaining  Landsmannschaften.  Turning 
aside  from  the  Komment  for  a  moment,  we  will  now 
give  our  attention  to  the  organization  of  the  separate 
societies. 

Each  Landsmannschaft  took  its  name  from  one  of 
the  principalities  or  subdivisions  of  Germany,  such,  for 
example,  as  Thuringia,  Swabia,  Westphalia,  etc.,  and 
also  selected  for  itself  a  colour  or  colours  by  which  it 
was  known.  The  Landsmannschaften  admitted  two 
classes  of  members — Burschen*  or  full  members,  who 
formed  the  nucleus  of  the  organization,  and  the  Re- 
noncen,  or  associate  members,  who  attached  themselves 
to  the  society  for  the  sake  of  its  protection  and  influ- 
ence.   The  foxes,  or  freshmen,  were  compelled  to  serve 

*  Latin  bursa,  purse,  common  purse  (Judas  bore  the  purse), 
and  hence  a  member  of  the  club  or  class  that  had  a  common 
purse  ;  in  the  fifteenth  century  it  came  to  be  applied  to  the  mem- 
bers of  the  higher  classes  at  the  German  universities. 
2 


18  STUDENT  LIFE  AND  CUSTOMS. 

a  novitiate  before  they  were  admitted  as  full  members. 
During  the  period  of  apprenticeship  they  are  expected 
to  obey  orders  implicitly,  and  are  trained  in  fencing, 
drinking,  and  the  laws  of  the  Landsmannschaft.  Admis- 
sion to  full  membership  was  attended  with  certain  cere- 
monies, frequently  with  a  catechization  on  the  Kom- 
ment  and  the  principles  of  the  association,  the  attach- 
ing of  a  ribbon,  the  communication  of  the  cipher  of  the 
association,  and  the  kiss  of  brotherhood.  The  officers  of 
the  Landsmannschaft  were  a  senior,  a  consenior,  a  secre- 
tary, and  a  number  of  special  committeemen  propor- 
tioned to  the  members.  These  officials  together  consti- 
tute the  council  which  resolves  absolutely  on  all  matters 
connected  with  the  society,  attends  to  its  connections 
abroad,  and  presides  at  regular  festivals.  To  this  senior 
council  the  unconditional  submission  of  every  member 
is  due;  to  withstand  its  decisions  is  to  incur  the  con- 
demnation of  infamy.  This  arrangement  placed  the 
management  of  the  society  in  the  hands  of  its  oldest 
and  most  hardened  members,  and  was  responsible  for 
much  of  the  recklessness  and  dissipation  which  charac- 
terized the  Landsmannschaften. 

The  Komment  treats  chiefly  of  honour — how  it  may 
be  preserved,  attacked,  and  regained  when  lost.  The 
sword  is  the  great  talisman  of  honour.  Much  of  the 
Komment  in  consequence  discusses  the  duel — how  it 
may  be  occasioned  and  fought.  At  its  incej^tion  the 
Komment  was  probably  modelled  upon  the  ceremonial 
of  the  later  chivalry  and  court  life  as  developed  at  the 
court  of  Louis  XIV.  Most  of  the  technical  terms  em- 
ployed in  the  duel  are  evidently  from  this  source.  Such 
words,  in  part  distorted  forms,  are  numerous,  including 
such  terms  as  comment  (suspendu),  satisfaction,  avan- 
tage,  touche,  secundieren,  renommieren,  renonce,  mal- 
traitationen,  and  others. 

The  Komment  separates  students  into  classes:    (1) 


STUDENT  LIFE  IN  EUROPE.  19 

according  to  their  place  of  residence,  and  (2)  according 
to  the  length  of  their  residence  at  the  university.  A 
pavement-beater  (Pflastertreter  or  Quark)  is  one  whose 
parents  live  in  the  university  town,  and  a  cununin-Turk 
(Kiimmelturk)  is  one  whose  parents  live  within  four 
miles  of  a  university  town.  During  the  first  half  year 
of  a  student's  residence  he  is  a  fox;  the  second  half  year 
makes  him  a  brander  fox.  At  the  beginning  of  the  sec- 
ond year  he  becomes  a  young  Bursch,  six  months  later  a 
Bursch,  and  then  at  the  beginning  of  his  third  year  an 
old  Bursch.  The  end  of  the  promotion  process  is  not 
reached  until  the  second  half  of  the  third  year,  when 
our  hero — if  he  survives  so  long — is  known  as  a  mossy- 
head. 

The  honour  of  the  Bursch  was  a  highly  artificial 
and  intricate  product.  A  man  might  be  declared  dis- 
honourable on  sixteen  different  counts,  many  of  them 
extremely  frivolous  from  the  standpoint  of  rational 
ethics.  For  example,  a  man  might  become  dishonour- 
able by  allowing  himself  to  be  called  so  by  a  member  of 
another  society  without  resenting  it  or  by  returning 
only  a  verbal  insult  when  the  other  party  was  prepared 
to  fight.  To  give  information  to  the  authorities  or  to 
declare  one^s  self  free  from  the  obligation  of  the  Ivom- 
ment  was  as  great  an  offence  as  to  break  one's  word  of 
honour  or  to  steal.  The  code  regulated  duels  and  inter- 
course between  the  societies  with  a  nicety  worthy  of  the 
Chinese  imperial  court,  but  left  a  man  free  to  lie,  to 
cheat  at  cards,  or  to  recognise  no  obligation  whatever  to 
a  Philister  or  outsider.  The  most  common  verbal  in- 
sult was  to  call  another  "  Dumme  Junge "  (stupid 
youth).  Under  article  D  of  the  Komment  of  the  so- 
cieties of  Altdorf  the  dishonoured  one  who  has  violated 
the  code  has  no  claim  to  the  satisfaction  of  a  Bursch, 
and  any  advantage  may  be  taken  of  him.  The  stigma 
"  dishonourable  "  could  be  removed  either  by  the  ac- 


20  STUDENT  LIFE  AND  CUSTOMS. 

cused  fighting  witli  a  member  from  eacli  of  tlie  societies, 
or  by  the  unanimous  vote  of  tlie  deputies  of  all  the 
societies. 

The  Landsmannschaften  were  a  great  stimulus  to 
quarrelling  and  duelling.  No  man  could  be  a  jolly  rep- 
utable Bursch  unless  he  had  already  fought  many  duels 
and  was  known  as  a  keen  and  powerful  swordsman. 
Quarrelling,  insults,  a  provoking  conduct  carried  so  far 
as  to  be  ridiculous,  and  innumerable  duels,  were  the  con- 
sequence. To  make  up  the  full  number  of  a  hundred 
duels  was  the  ambition  of  many  students.  Learned 
studies  suffered  under  such  conditions,  and  social  life 
was  an  unpleasant  existence  on  a  continued  war  footing 
in  which  those  unacquainted  with  weapons  were  wholly 
defenceless.  Societies  were  in  a  state  of  constant  excite- 
ment and  irritation  against  each  other.  The  privilege 
of  changing  from  one  side  to  another  availed  nothing, 
for  a  man  who  had  insulted  one  was  obliged  before  he 
entered  another  to  fight  duels  with  all  his  former  col- 
leagues; nor  could  a  new  society  establish  itself  on  a 
received  footing  except  by  fighting  itself  into  recog- 
nition. 

National  animosities,  however,  did  not  prevent  the 
Landsmannschaften  from  combining  for  riots  and  other 
excesses.  In  Fichte's  time  at  Jena  (1793-1798)  violent 
riots  were  of  common  occurrence;  houses  were  broken 
into  and  robbed  of  their  contents  to  supply  the  ma- 
rauders with  the  means  of  sensual  indulgence.  The 
arm  of  the  law  was  powerless  to  restrain  such  outbreaks; 
so  bold  had  the  students  become  that  upon  one  occasion, 
when  the  house  of  a  professor  at  Jena  had  been  at- 
tacked, five  hundred  students  openly  demanded  of  the 
duke  amnesty  for  the  offence.  As  the  Landsmann- 
schaften were  responsible  for  these  uprisings,  the  au- 
thorities endeavoured  at  various  times  to  suppress  them, 
but  such  attempts  only  caused  the  students  to  break  out 


STUDENT  LIFE  IN  EUROPE.  21 

anew  and  raise  fresh  disturbances.  The  philosopher 
Fichte,  however,  by  his  personal  influence,  persuaded 
two  of  the  most  reprehensible  societies  to  disband 
and  turn  over  their  documents  to  him  for  safe-keep- 
ing. Owing  to  the  jealousy  of  his  colleagues,  his  praise- 
worthy attempt  was  without  permanent  effect.  The 
Landsmannschaften  of  this  period  were  instrumental 
in  demoralizing  their  members  by  inordinate  drink- 
ing and  by  making  popular  dangerous  forms  of 
vice. 

The  secret  orders  which  appeared  in  the  German 
universities  about  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century 
were  bitter  rivals  of  the  Landsmannschaften,  and  in 
their  origin  were  offshoots  of  the  contemporary  Masonic 
movement.  They  were  prohibited  at  Gottingen  in  1748, 
at  Erlangen  in  1762,  at  Tubingen  and  Jena  in  1765. 
By  the  year  1816  they  had  completely  disappeared  from 
the  German  universities.  Some  of  the  most  famous 
orders  were  the  Order  of  the  Cross,  founded  in  1762 
with  all  the  rites  of  freemasonry;  the  Order  of  the  Coop- 
ers, which  exerted  a  destructive  influence;  and  the  Black 
Order,  or  Order  of  Harmony,  which  arose  in  1771  at 
Erlangen.  This  last  organization  was  not  confined  to 
students,  but  possessed  lodges  among  the  citizens  of 
Nuremberg  and  Coburg.  The  orders  differed  from  the 
Landsmannschaften  in  admitting  members  without  re- 
gard to  nationality  and  in  adopting  an  elaborate  ritual 
after  the  manner  of  the  Masons.  The  resemblance  in 
ritual  was  particularly  close  in  the  case  of  the  Black 
Knights  with  the  Masons:  they  named  Pythagoras  as 
the  founder  of  their  order.  In  their  hall  stood  a  basin 
full  of  water,  the  symbolical  meaning  of  which  was  ex- 
plained to  those  initiated,  together  with  a  statue  of  Vir- 
tue and  one  of  Friendship,  a  cross  of  the  order  with  the 
sun,  moon,  and  stars  emblazoned  upon  it,  a  crucifix, 
and  several  skulls.     In  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth 


22  STUDENT  LIFE  AND   CUSTOMS. 

century  there  were  few  students  who  did  not  belong  to 
one  of  these  secret  orders. 

The  heroic  struggle  of  the  north  Germans  against 
Napoleon,  terminating  with  the  War  of  Liberation,  cre- 
ated a  strong  feeling  in  favour  of  German  unity  and 
the  constitutional  forms  of  government.  In  the  absence 
of  free  political  institutions,  these  sentiments  found  a 
home  in  the  universities.  The  thousands  of  students 
who  had  enlisted  at  the  summons  of  the  king  and  fought 
honourably  in  the  great  battles  of  the  campaign,  re- 
turned home  filled  with  a  noble  enthusiasm.  To  quote 
words  of  a  German  writer:  "  The  youth,  enchanted, 
as  it  were,  previously  by  the  chains  of  ignoble  and  even 
vulgar  academical  habits,  now  felt  themselves  released 
by  the  most  lofty  experiences.  They  were  delivered 
from  the  tyranny  of  false  honour,  and  saw  the  Komment 
in  its  true  light.  True  honour  and  courage  devoted  to 
the  cause  of  country  alone  was  substituted  for  that  imp, 
point  of  honour."  While  predominantly  political,  the 
new  movement  had  a  religious  side;  there  was  a  feeling 
— strong,  although  indistinct  and  undeveloped — that 
Germany  without  Christianity  was  hopeless  and  lost. 
The  Landsmannschaften  or  Corps,  as  representatives  of 
local  divisions  and  at  enmity  among  themselves,  and 
with  strong  tendencies  to  dissipation,  could  not  meet 
the  needs  of  the  new  movement,  and  so  a  new  type  of 
student  organization,  the  Bursclienschaften,  was  formed. 

The  first  society  of  the  new  order  was  organized  at 
Jena  in  1816;  others  were  founded  soon  afterward.  The 
Bursclienschaften  first  came  prominently  before  the 
public  in  connection  with  the  so-called  Wartburg  festi- 
val, held  in  October,  1817,  the  three  hundredth  anni- 
versary of  Luther's  defiance  of  the  Pope.  Five  hundred 
students,  representing  all  the  students  of  Protestant 
Germany,  gathered  together  at  Eisenach.  The  keynote 
of  the  celebration  was  struck  by  the  orator  of  the  occa- 


STUDENT  LIFE  IN  EUROPE.  23 

sion,  Eiemann,  of  Eatzeburg,  Knight  of  the  Iron  Cross, 
a  distinction  gained  for  bravery  on  the  bloody  day  at 
Belle  Alliance.  After  showing  that  the  young  men 
must  hold  fast  to  the  good  already  obtained  of  German 
freedom,  with  rising  enthusiasm  he  invoked  the  shades 
of  Luther  and  all  the  noble  heroes  who  had  fallen  in  the 
contest  for  freedom  and  right  to  be  invisible  witnesses 
of  the  vow  which  he  offered  in  the  name  of  the  assem- 
bly: "  That  which  we  have  acknowledged  we  will  main- 
tain as  long  as  a  drop  of  blood  remains  in  our  veins.. 
The  spirit  which  has  brought  us  hither — the  spirit  of 
truth  and  justice — shall  lead  us  through  our  whole  life; 
that  we,  all  brothers,  sons  of  the  one  and  same  father- 
land, shall  form  a  brazen  wall  against  every  outer  and 
inner  enemy  of  that  fatherland;  that  the  death  of  open 
battle  shall  not  terrify  us  from  standing  in  the  heat  of 
the  battle  when  the  invader  threatens;  that  the  splen- 
dour of  the  monarch's  throne  shall  not  dazzle  us  from 
speaking  the  strong  free  word  when  truth  and  right 
demand  it;  and  that  we  will  never  pause  in  the  endeav- 
our after  every  human  and  patriotic  virtue." 

The  ceremonies  of  the  day  consisted  of  a  grand  pro- 
cession in  the  morning,  a  vast  banquet  at  midday  with 
gay  songs  and  festive  healths,  and  the  celebration  of  the 
sacrament  of  the  Lord's  Supper  in  the  afternoon,  all 
of  which  was  carried  out  without  confusion  or  dis- 
turbance. The  crowning  episode  of  the  festival  oc- 
curred in  the  evening,  when,  without  previous  notice, 
twenty-eight  books  noted  for  their  un-German  views 
were  burned  in  a  huge  bonfire.  The  works  of  the 
Eussian  court  chancellor.  Von  Kotzebue,  were  on  the 
proscribed  list.  This  affair  created  great  excitement 
throughout  Germany.  Opposition  to  the  Burschen- 
schaft  began  to  show  itself,  compelling  almost  every  one 
to  take  sides. 

The  general  German  Burschenschaft  was  organized 


24  STUDENT  LIFE  AND  CUSTOMS. 

by  representatives  of  the  local  societies  in  October, 
1818,  one  year  after  the  Wartburg  festival.  To  borrow 
the  words  of  its  preamble,  it  was  "  the  free  union  of  all 
German  youth  engaged  in  learned  studies  at  the  uni- 
versity, based  upon  the  relations  of  the  German  youth 
to  the  coming  union  of  the  German  people."  To  hasten 
and  facilitate  this  union,  the  Burschenschaft  declared 
the  unity,  freedom,  and  equality  of  all  Burschen  among 
each  other,  the  equality  of  all  rights  and  duties,  and 
the  German,  Christian  education  of  every  mental  and 
bodily  faculty  in  the  service  of  the  fatherland.  The 
freedom  and  unity  of  the  students  were  to  present  a  pic- 
ture of  the  unity  of  a  prosperous  nation;  the  orderly, 
common  life  of  the  Burschenschaften  was  to  prepare  its 
members  for  national  life,  "  so  that  each  of  them  may  be 
raised  to  such  a  grade  of  self-knowledge  as  in  his  own 
pure  individuality  to  display  the  brightness  and  glory 
of  the  German  national  spirit." 

The  general  or  central  Burschenschaft  maintained 
no  continuous  executive  organization.  Its  only  organ 
was  an  assembly  of  delegates,  three  from  each  univer- 
sity, which  met  yearly.  Some  one  local  society  was 
chosen  to  transact  the  necessary  business  for  the  re- 
mainder of  the  year.  The  assembly  of  delegates  decided 
controversies,  passed  upon  the  constitution  of  the  local 
societies  to  insure  that  they  contained  the  true  prin- 
ciples of  the  order,  and  recommended  alterations  in 
the  constitution,  which  required  the  ratification  of  the 
local  societies  before  taking  effect.  The  central  Bur- 
schenschaft required  the  local  chapters  to  settle  internal 
disputes,  not  by  duel,  but  amicably  by  appeal  to  the 
general  assembly.  Each  society  must  likewise  recognise 
as  just  the  penalties  of  the  others.  In  their  relations 
with  the  Landsmannschaften,  which  were  still  a  power 
in  the  universities,  the  Burschenschaften  should  first  at- 
tempt to  gain  over  their  opponents  by  persuasion;  th^s 


STUDENT  LIFE  IN  EUROPE.  25 

feeling,  they  must  resort  to  the  most  efficient  means  of 
opposition  which  the  situation  permitted.  So  funda- 
mentally different  were  the  underlying  principles  of  the 
two  orders  that  their  reciprocal  attitude  was  that  of 
bitter  antagonism  and  hostility.  ^ 

The  local  Burschenschaften  (or  unions  of  mati-c^i- 
lated  students)  promoted  conimon  life  by  two  instru- 
mentalities— systematic  physical  exercise,  usually  tak- 
ing the  form  of  fencing  and  gymnastics,  and  the 
Burschenhaus.  The  founders  of  the  order  considered 
the  latter  the  most  important  means  of  promoting 
closer  union  and  social  intercourse,  and  made  it  in- 
cumbent upon  the  members  to  frequent  it  as  much  as 
possible.  Every  one  of  the  large  number  of  festivals 
provided  for  in  the  constitution  were  held  in  the  Bur- 
schenhaus. The  constitution  of  the  Jena  Burschen- 
schaft  placed  the  administrative  control  in  the  hands  of 
a  committee  of  nine  managers  and  three  candidates  for 
managership,  all  of  whom  were  elected  every  half  year. 
This  board  wielded  the  entire  executive,  legislative,  and 
judicial  authority  of  the  society;  it  decided  quarrels 
and  points  of  honour,  and  supervised  external  business, 
such  as  fixing  the  time  of  meeting.  As  a  check  on  the 
board  of  managers,  another  committee  of  twenty  was 
appointed  to  see  that  the  laws  of  the  society  were 
obeyed.  The  constitution  of  the  local  society  was  long 
and  intricate,  and  showed  the  evidence  of  experienced 
legal  hands  in  the  framing. 

For  two  years  the  Burschenschaften  held  posses-  x 
sion  of  the  universities,  for,  although  they  were  unable 
to  exterminate  the  Corps  or  Landsmannschaften,  they 
so  far  overshadowed  the  latter  in  importance  that  all 
eyes  were  focused  upon  them.  While  they  met  with 
the  greatest  opposition  from  the  political  conservatives, 
their  most  bitter  enemies  existed  within  their  own 
ranks.     The  great  majority  of  the  members  held  to  the 


26  STUI)ENT  LIFE  AND  CUSTOMS. 

principles  enunciated  in  the  constitution,  and  believed 
that  the  preparation  of  the  German  people  for  unity  and 
freedom  should  come  through  a  lofty  moral  life.  A 
small  faction,  however,  known  as  the  Blacks,  began  to 
sep^.rate  themselves  from  the  main  body  of  the  party; 
these  radicals  were  not  content  to  abide  the  slow  influ- 
ence of  education  and  time,  but  discarded  constitu- 
tional agitation  in  favour  of  an  immediate  armed  move- 
ment against  existing  authorities. 

Karl  Follen,*  the  leader  of  the  Blacks,  was  a  disciple 
of  Fichte,  and  carried  the  views  of  that  philosopher  in 
regard  to  the  supremacy  of  the  moral  ego  to  their  logi- 
cal conclusion,  and  applied  them  to  the  state.  His 
cardinal  principle  of  action  was  the  doctrine  that  all 
which  is  recognised  by  the  human  reason  as  good, 
beautiful,  and  true,  should  immediately  be  accom- 
plished by  means  of  the  moral  will.  He  asserted  with 
great  boldness  that  his  own  life  was  such  as  reason  re- 
quired. "  With  an  indescribable  expression  of  con- 
tempt in  his  features,  he  accused  those  of  cowardice 
and  weakness  who  imagined  that  a  knowledge  of  truth 
and  beauty,  and  especially  of  their  highest  ideals,  could 
be  disjointed  from  living  them  out,  practising  them, 
realizing  them  to  their  widest  extent."  His  own  char- 
acter was  one  of  boldness,  austerity,  and  rectitude,  and 
his  worst  enemies  could  accuse  him  of  nothing  worse 
than  want  of  humility. 

According  to  Follen's  logic,  the  identity  of  reason 
and  action  was  carried  into  politics,  and  the  state  must 
correspond  to  the  reason  of  its  constituent  members. 
Eeason  demanded  unconditionally  the  acceptance  of 
the  republican  form  of  government.  His  outline  of  a 
future  "  constitution  for  the  empire  of  Germany  "  was 

*  Karl  Follen  came  as  an  exile  to  America  in  1835,  and  w^s 
professor  in  Harvard  College  till  liis  death  in  1840. 


STUDENT  LIFE  IX  EUROPE.  27 

the  last  of  the  paper  constitutions  of  revolutionary 
times.  It  embodies  a  complete  disregard  for  every 
existing  right.  Follen's  intolerance  is  seen  in  the  pro- 
visions which  confine  the  franchise  to  those  who  had 
partaken  of  the  sacrament,  and  forbade  the  Jewish  form 
of  worship  within  the  boundaries  of  the  empire.  Fol- 
len  himself  admitted  that  such  a  constitution  could 
only  be  established  by  the  shedding  of  blood.  The 
harshness  with  which  Follen  enforced  his  views  drove 
many  of  his  friends  into  opposition.  His  personal  sup- 
porters were  entirely  out  of  sjmipathy  with  the  Bur- 
schenschaften,  which,  in  their  opinion  "  contained  at 
least  twenty  rascals  to  one  good  fellow." 

One  of  the  most  devoted  of  Follen's  followers  at 
Jena  was  a  theological  student,  Karl  Ludwig  Sand. 
Sand  fell  a  victim  to  Follen's  logic  and  resolved  to 
assassinate  August  von  Kotzebue,  a  German  of  con- 
servative tendencies,  in  the  pay  of  Eussia,  who  opposed 
the  Burschenschaften.  For  months  after  this  resolve 
was  made,  Sand  attended  lectures  regularly,  as  if  pre- 
paring himself  for  future  years  of  usefulness.  On 
March  19,  1819,  however,  he  called  on  Von  Kotzebue, 
stabbed  him  fatally,  and  then  attempted  unsuccessfully 
to  commit  suicide.  Xo  exception  could  be  taken  to  his 
behaviour  during  imprisonment,  wliich  was  sane  and 
praiseworthy;  without  troubling  the  keepers,  he  thank- 
fully received  all  the  services  which  were  rendered  for 
the  alleviation  of  his  suffering.  Sand  undoubtedly 
considered  himself  a  martyr  to  the  cause  of  freedom, 
and  accepted  death  with  quiet  heroism.  A  searching 
investigation  failed  to  discover  any  conspiracy,  or  to 
implicate  any  one  as  Sand's  accesso^3^ 

Xotwithstanding  this  conclusion  of  the  court,  the 
reactionary  governments  of  the  German  states  were  so 
alarmed  at  the  murder,  which  they  considered  the  legiti- 
mate outcome  of  the  liberal  movement,  that  Metternich 


28  STUDENT  LIFE  AND  CUSTOMS. 

had  no  difficulty  in  securing  their  consent  to  resolu- 
tions passed  by  the  Bundestag  (September  20,  1819), 
which  abolished  the  general  German  Burschenschaft, 
provided  government  inspectors  for  each  university,  de- 
creed the  removal  of  dangerous  professors,  and  declared 
that  no  student  expelled  from  one  university  should  be 
permitted  to  enter  another.  The  members  of  the  Bur- 
schenschaften,  as  loyal  citizens  of  their  respective  states, 
obeyed  the  commands  of  their  sovereign.  The  Jena 
Burschenschaft  at  its  last  meeting  presented  an  address 
to  the  grand  duke,  which  proudly  stated  that,  owing  to 
the  society  a  free  and  virtuous  mode  of  life  had  grown 
up;  trustful  publicity  had  taken  the  place  of  creeping 
secrecy;  and  its  members  could,  without  shame,  display 
to  the  eyes  of  the  world  what  they  meditated  in  their 
inmost  hearts.* 

Karl  von  Eaumer,  who  had  watched  the  Burschen- 
schaften  from  their  origin,  and  had  been  on  terms  of 
intimacy  with  their  leaders,  speaks  in  the  following 
strain  of  the  reforms  which  they  brought  about:  "  They 

*  The  feeling  of  the  members  upon  the  dissolution  of  the 
Burschenschaften  is  expressed  in  a  little  poem  by  Benzer,  of  Jena, 
the  English  translation  of  which  runs  as  follows  : 

"  A  house  we  had  builded, 
So  stately  and  fair ; 
There  trusting  to  be  shielded, 
In  God,  from  storm  and  care. 

**  We  lived  there  so  gaily, 
So  friendly,  so  free. 
It  grieved  the  wicked  daily 
Our  true  accord  to  see. 

**  That  fair  house  may  perish 
When  greatest  our  need ; 
Its  spirit  still  we  cherish, 

But  God's  our  strength  indeed." 


STUDENT  LIFE  IN  EUROPE.  29 

had  produced  a  ^^rofound  moral  change  and  reformation 
in  a  large  part  of  the  academic  youth,  and  fought 
against  their  demoralization.  They  banished  gaming 
tables  from  their  precincts,  and  reduced  duelling  to 
one  twentieth  of  its  former  proportions.  Chastity  they 
held  in  high  esteem,  deeming  it  a  shame  to  resort  to 
licensed  houses  of  ill-fame.  Conscious  of  such  an  en- 
deavour after  inward  reform,  the  Burschenschaft  could 
neither  aim  at  secrecy  nor  be  indifferent  to  the  favour 
of  the  authorities.  The  members  sought  by  all  means 
to  secure  the  approbation  of  the  governments,  both  by 
their  conduct  in  the  society  and  by  attempts  to  secure 
direct  recognition,  and  they  had  no  idea  that  they 
would  be  considered  dangerous  to  the  state." 

It  could  hardly  have  been  anticipated  that  such  a 
multitude  of  enthusiastic  youths  would  relinquish  a 
cherished  plan  at  the  first  word  from  the  monarchs,  and 
as  a  matter  of  fact  the  more  radical  members  main- 
tained the  societies  in  secret  after  the  decree  went  into 
effect.  The  governments  increased  the  evil  by  taking 
no  pains  to  discriminate  between  the  innocent  and  the 
guilty.  The  impression  gained  ground  among  the 
students  that,  notwithstanding  the  propriety  of  their 
conduct,  no  confidence  was  placed  in  them  by  the  gov- 
ernments. Such  conditions  favoured  the  malcontents 
and  led  to  the  formation  of  the  Tugendbund  in  1822. 
This  organization  was  little  more  than  a  camp  for  the 
discontented;  great  confusion  and  perplexity  of  ideas 
existed  among  the  members  in  regard  to  the  real  end  of 
the  society;  no  one  seemed  to  know  just  exactly  what 
he  wanted.  It  accomplished  nothing,  and  furnished 
the  central  investigation  commission  at  Mayence  an 
excuse  for  numerous  banishments  and  imprisonments. 

The  relaxation  of  authority  in  the  later  twenties 
opened  the  way  to  the  formation  of  new  Burschen- 
schaften  more  closely  modelled  on  the  Corps  than  the 


30  STUDENT  LIFE  AND  CUSTOMS. 

earlier  societies.  In  1827  representatives  from  these 
societies  came  together  and  formed  the  second  German 
Burschenschaft.  As  before,  the  students  were  divided 
into  two  parties:  the  Moderates,  known  as  Arminians, 
who  trusted  to  education  and  constitutional  agitation; 
and  the  Radicals  or  Germans,  who  favoured  armed  in- 
surrection. By  1830  the  gulf  between  the  two  factions 
had  grown  so  wide  that  they  formally  separated  into 
two  distinct  organizations.  In  December,  1832,  the 
Germans  resolved  upon  a  revolution  to  secure  the  lib- 
erty and  unity  of  the  fatherland.  April  of  the  follow- 
ing year  witnessed  their  outbreak,  which  ended  in 
complete  failure.  The  governments  again  adopted  a 
rigorous  policy  and  suppressed  the  Burschenschaften  in 
all  forms,  including  the  Arminians,  who  had  opi^osed 
the  outbreak. 

The  extinction  of  the  first  German  Burschenschaft 
in  1819  was  indirectly  the  means  of  bringing  about  the 
golden  age  of  the  Corps.  Being  aristocratic  bodies  of 
conservative  tendencies,  and  at  deadly  feud  with  the 
Burschenschaften,  they  were  encouraged  by  govern- 
ments and  court  parties  of  the  various  states.  Age  had 
mellowed  their  old  barbarous  customs,  and  much  of  the 
grossness  of  the  eighteenth  century  had  worn  away. 
Foreigners  were  attracted  by  the  air  of  adventure  and 
romance  which  belonged  to  the  student  life  of  this 
period,  in  which  the  Corps  played  the  central  role.  An 
English  writer  thus  describes  it:  "  In  the  student  life 
of  Germany  which  is  enjoyed  as  a  brief  season  of 
youthful  hilarity  which  in  this  world  can  come  but 
once,  a  season  when  knowledge  is  not  only  to  be  gath- 
ered, but  life  to  be  enjoyed — friendships  for  life  to  be 
knit — ^love  perhaps  to  be  kindled,  and  the  spirit  of 
patriotism  to  be  cherished  to  a  degree  which  no  after 
chills  and  oppressions  of  ordinary  life  can  ever  be  able 
to  extinguish — in  this  life  there  is  a  feeling  and  a 


STUDENT  LIFE  IN  EUROPE.  31 

sentiment  to  which  our  [English]  student  life  is  a 
stranger."  * 

The  high  social  position  of  their  members  gave  the 
Corps  the  right  to  consider  themselves  the  legitimate 
representatives  of  the  entire  student  body.  At  this 
period  they  were  still  able  to  hurl  the  terrors  of  their 
Bannstrahl,  or  excommunication  against  either  students 
or  citizens  who  defied  them.  If  an  innkeeper  or 
merchant  overcharged  a  student,  a  proscription  would 
be  issued  against  the  establishment  for  a  certain  speci- 
fied period,  during  which  no  student  was  permitted 
to  patronize  it.  A  student  disregarding  the  rule, 
found  himself  placed  under  the  ban.  Guards  and  spies 
w^ere  stationed  on  all  sides  to  observe  infractions  of 
the  law. 

The  old  spirit  of  riot  and  lawlessness,  w^hile  to  a 
certain  extent  curbed,  w^as  by  no  means  extinct.  The 
students  of  Heidelberg  were  in  the  habit  of  celebrating 
their  Kommers,  or  drinking  bouts,  in  some  of  the 
neighbouring  villages.  They  played  practical  jokes  on 
the  peasants,  who  in  return  sometimes  became  enraged 
and  assailed  their  guests  in  troops  with  heavy  cudgels, 
and  when  aroused  they  oftentimes  proved  merciless  an- 
tagonists, treading  on  and  even  stamping  on  the  faces 
of  the  students  who  were  throw^n  down.  It  was  a  fa- 
vourite pastime  of  the  Jena  students  to  pursue 
the  town  watchman  through  the  streets  of  the  city. 
Sometimes  they  tied  him  to  a  tree,  with  the  signboard 
of  a  neighbouring  inn,  representing  an  ox,  bear, 
or  monkey,  suspended  above  him;  on  other  occa- 
sions he  was  placed  at  the  head  of  the  party  and 
compelled  to  march  through  the  town  until  the  small 
hours  of  the  morning,  blowing  his  horn,  the  signal  of 
danger.  * 

*  Howitt,  William.     The  Student  Life  of  Germany,  p.  9. 


32  STUDENT  LIFE  AND  CUSTOMS. 

The  drinking  habits  of  the  students  were  regulated 
by  the  ''  Bier-lvomment,"  an  elaborate  drinking  ritual. 
At  the  beginning  of  a  Kommers  the  students  sing  a 
drinking  song,  "  The  foxes  under  the  ban  have  gone," 
after  which  the  crass  foxes,  bareheaded,  must  rise  and 
drink  off  half  a  Schoppen,  while  the  brand  foxes,  sitting, 
each  drink  an  entire  Schoppen.  Any  one  violating  the 
Kommers,  or  interrupting  the  proceedings,  may  be  sen- 
tenced to  drink  not  more  than  two  Schoppens  at  one 
time.  If  a  member  does  not  drink  the  quantity  dictated 
to  him  in  five  minutes  the  president  has  a  right,  without 
further  proceeding,  to  write  him  down  on  the  beer  tab- 
let as  a  Bierschisser.  Four  additional  Schoppens  are 
then  added  to  the  amount  which  the  offender  has  yet  to 
drink.  The  quantity  of  beer  consumed  at  these  festivi- 
ties would  seem  an  impossibility  to  the  students  of  any 
other  nation. 

-^  Duelling  remained,  as  in  previous  generations,  the 
pivot  of  student  life.  J.  M.  Hart,  in  his  book,  German 
Universities,  describes  student  duelling  as  it  existed  in 
the  early  sixties  at  Gottingen.  After  explaining  that 
student  duelling  is  no  anomaly,  but,  on  the  contrary, 
that  the  military  conception  of  honour  prevailing  on 
the  Continent  makes  it  the  only  dignified  and  gentle- 
manly way  of  resenting  an  insult.  Hart  shows  that  to  a 
large  extent  in  the  universities  it  had  ceased  to  be  a 
means  of  resenting  insults  and  had  become  a  mere  pas- 
time. ^^  The  impartial  observer,"  he  says,  "  must  ac- 
cuse the  student  of  fighting  just  because  he  likes  to 
fight.  It  is  a  notorious  fact  that  nine  tenths  of  the 
duels  are  fought  without  any  real  provocation.  One 
student  happens  to  bump  against  another  in  the 
street,  or  one  chaffs  the  other  too  sharply.  The  fault 
of  the  German  system  is  that  it  tolerates  bloodshed,  and 
makes  student  honour  to  a  large  extent  conventional." 
With  all  its  defects,  however,  he  considers  the  Gerrr^an 


STUDENT  LIFE  IX  EUROPE.  33 

custom  of  duelling  more  manly  than  the  hazing  preva- 
lent in  American  colleges  at  the  same  period.  "  The 
German  can  not  play  Hector  one  day  and  the  meek  and 
lowly  minded  the  next.  By  insulting  in  any  way  his 
fellow,  he  places  himself  before  the  inexorable  alter- 
native, apologize  or  fight." 

The  following  account  of  a  duel  by  an  English- 
man will  give  the  reader  some  idea  of  the  sport  as  it  is 
at  present  conducted  in  Germany,  and  will  incidentally 
throw  a  side  light  on  the  way  which  the  two  most 
marked  characteristics  of  German  student  life  strike  a 
foreigner: 

"  Perhaps  the  closeness  of  the  room,  thick  with  the 
confined  tobacco  of  yesterday's  festivities,  or  the  ba- 
thos of  students  eating  sausages  during  the  encounter, 
or  the  businesslike  indifference  of  the  waiters  pass- 
ing in  and  out,  or  the  fumes  of  cigars  before  break- 
fast on  a  hot  summer  morning,  or  the  grotesqueness 
of  the  iron  spectacles  and  padding,  were  conditions  un- 
favourable to  the  heroic.  At  any  rate,  insular  or  not, 
I  must  confess  that  when  the  blood  began  to  ooze  and 
spurt,  every  other  feeling  gave  way  to  an  invincible 
nausea  and  disgust.  I  certainly  had  not  realized  that 
there  could  be  so  much  bloodshed  with  so  little  dam- 
age. It  is  a  pity  that  the  disgusting  element  is  so 
strong,  as  it  destroys  the  humour  of  the  affair.  Before 
the  unpleasantness  began,  I  had  great  difficulty  in  pre- 
serving an  expression  of  face  worthy  of  the  gravity  of 
the  affair.  I  could  not  get  rid  of  the  impression  that 
the  combatants  were  not  students,  but  a  couple  of 
elderly  gentlemen. 

"  The  subject  of  student  beer  drinking  is  not  an 
inviting  one.  Xot  that  there  is  any  great  amount  of 
drunkenness,  the  beer  is  too  weak  for  that.  Quantity, 
not  quality,  is  the  thing  aimed  at.  But  it  is  a  coarse  and 
tedious  proceeding.  Its  dulness  is  not  even  relieved  by 
3 


34:  STUDENT  LIFE  AND  CUSTOMS. 

the  deviltry  of  a  big  Oxford  wine.  It  is  worse  than  sin- 
ful, it  is  vulgar.'^ ''' 

The  first  of  a  new  order  of  societies,  called  Wingolf, 
was  instituted  in  1850,  at  the  University  of  Halle. 
While  belonging  to  the  same  general  type  of  society  as 
the  Corps  and  Burschenschaften,  the  Wingolf  was  com- 
posed exclusively  of  theological  students,  and  therefore 
rejected  duelling  and  other  ruder  customs.  -  The  new 
society  spread  rapidly,  and  was  imitated  in  the  Catholic 
universities.  Since  1870,  numbers  of  new  student  or- 
ganizations, known  as  the  Free  Societies,  of  a  more  in- 
formal character  than  the  old,  have  appeared  in  the 
German  universities.  Some  of  them  have  a  political 
end  in  view,  like  the  "  Deutsche  Studenten-Y erein " 
which  represented  the  anti-Semitic  movement  in  the 
universities;  most  of  them,  however,  were  for  the  fur- 
therance of  some  particular  form  of  culture  like  the  Ge- 
sangvereine,  or  for  the  promotion  of  certain  studies. 
The  free  societies  must  not  be  thought  of  as  scientific 
associations;  their  chief  end  is  social;  the  common  in- 
terest forms  an  excuse  for  coming  together,  and  insures 
a  certain  amount  of  congeniality.  The  Free  Societies 
differ  from  the  older  or  colour-bearing  group,  in  having 
a  more  specific  purpose,  and  in  making  their  fellowship) 
less  close  and  exclusive. 

The  Free  Societies  have  by  no  means  the  prestige  of 
the  Corps  and  Burschenschaften,  which  consider  them- 
selves the  true  representatives  of  the  German  student- 
hood,  notwithstanding  the  fact  that  they  contain  a 
small  percentage  of  the  students;  in  some  universities 
hardly  so  many  as  one  twentieth.  Of  the  two  chief 
forms  of  colour-bearing  societies,  the  Corps  are  the 
most  aristocratic.     Their  members  pay  great  attention 

*  Baynes,  A.  H.     German    Student  Life,  in   Fraser's  Maga- 
zine, vol.  civ,  pp.  638,  639  (1881). 


STUDENT   LIFE  IN  EUROPE.  35 

to  the  externals  of  manners  and  expenditure,  and  hold 
themselves  aloof  from  the  masses  of  the  students. 
Some  of  the  Burschenschaften  are  simply  imitations  of 
the  Corps  on  a  little  lower  plane,  while  others  preserve 
something  of  the  spirit  and  ideals  of  the  old  Burschen- 
schaften. All  the  colour-bearing  societies  aim  at  com- 
plete community  of  life,  but  are  fast  ceasing  to  be  the 
representative  student  organizations  of  Germany. 

Before  attempting  to  characterize  the  German  stu- 
dent life,  we  must  note  its  relation  to  the  social  system 
of  which  it  forms  a  part,  and  particularly  its  relation 
to  the  lower  schools.  In  the  gymnasia  the  youth  have 
been  watched  for  eight  or  ten  years,  drilled  rigorously, 
and  held  in  strict  subordination.  All  forms  of  organ- 
ized school  life  are  denied  them,  including  (until  re- 
cently) athletic  games;  they  are  frequently  overworked. 
When  the  freshman  enters  the  university,  he  is  for  the 
first  time  completely  his  own  master;  a  new  life  has 
dawned  upon  him.  He  hardly  knows  which  way  to 
turn  his  steps,  every  prospect  seems  so  fair.  It  is  no 
wonder  that,  to  the  German,  his  student  days  seem  in  a 
peculiar  sense  the  springtime  of  life,  and  one  is  hardly 
surprised  to  hear  of  excesses;  they  are  the  natural  reac- 
tion against  his  former  confinement.  In  earlier  years 
this  feeling  was  heightened  by  the  prospect  which 
opened  before  the  Bursch.  After  completing  his 
course,  he  went  back  to  live  in  a  police  State,  where  the 
government  told  him  what  to  believe,  and  in  many  w^ays 
limited  his  freedom.  Under  the  old  regime  in  Ger- 
many the  university  was  the  one  free  institution  in 
society;  studenthood  was  the  one  free  and  glorious 
period  of  life  when  the  man  might  defy  the  authorities 
and  laugh  at  conventionality.  In  consequence,  German 
student  clubs  have  always  possessed  a  more  marked  in- 
dividuality than  those  of  other  nationalities;  they  rep- 
resent to  a  greater  extent  the  free  play  of  youth. 


36  STUDENT  LIFE  AND  CUSTOMS. 

The  social  life  of  the  German  student  is  apt  to  lack 
that  fine  spirit  of  courtesy  and  respect  for  the  conven- 
tions of  society  which  belong  to  the  best  circles  of 
Oxford  or  Harvard.  We  may  quote  the  words  of  Pro- 
fessor Boyesen,  an  unprejudiced  observer,  on  this  point: 
"  The  tone  among  the  [German]  afcademicians  in  gen- 
eral is  rude  and  boisterous,  their  conversation  is  charac- 
terized by  much  earnestness  and  a  conspicuous  lack  of 
refinement.  Their  jokes  are  ponderous  and  pointless, 
their  humour  degenerates  into  mere  grotesque  drollery. 
What  has  particularly  impressed  me  is  the  absence  of 
that  gentlemanly  bearing  which  in  an  undergraduate  of 
Oxford  or  Cambridge  is  second  nature.  The  German 
student  is  noisy  and  aggressive;  and  since  the  war  with 
France  his  stupendous  national  self-assertion  and  su- 
,preme  contempt  for  all  non-Teutonic  nations  are  apt  to 
make  him  a  bore  or  a  perpetual  irritation."  * 

On  the  other  hand,  a  warmer  and  more  cordial  tone 
prevails  among  the  Germans  than  is  found  in  the  stu- 
dent societies  of  England  or  America;  human  relations 
are  beautified  by  it  and  rendered  more  enjoyable.  The 
German  student  understands  to  perfection  the  art  of 
cultivating  simple  pleasure,  and  of  extracting  the  great- 
est amount  of  enjoyment  from  the  small  things  of  life. 

§  3.  Student  Life  in  English  Universities. 

Bibliography. — No  general  treatment  nor  bibliography  of 
English  student  life  has  yet  appeared.  The  standard  authori- 
ties for  the  middle  ages  are  Rashdall,  Mullinger,  and  Lyte  ;  for 
the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth  centuries,  Mullinger  and  Masson's 
Milton  ;  for  the  eighteenth  century,  Wordsworth  and  Huber. 
There  are  no  general  works  completely  covering  the  nineteenth 
century.  Most  useful  to  an  American  for  the  study  of  this 
period  are  the  vohimes  by  his  countrymen,  Bristed  and  Everett. 
Wells's  Oxford  and  Oxford  Life  gives  the  best  description  of 
recent  conditions.     A   suggestive   book   is   Aspects  of   Modern 

*  Hjalmar  Hjorth  Boyesen,  in  The  Cosmopolitan,  vol.  x,  p.  376. 


STUDENT  LIFE  IN  EUROPE.  37 

Oxford,  by  a  Mere  Don.  Richard  Harding  Davis  has  written  a 
brilliant  but  superficial  account  of  undergraduate  life  at  Oxford. 
The  great  public  schools  of  England  have  given  rise  to  an 
extensive  literature  of  student  life.  Selected  bibliographies  of 
value  have  been  published  by  J.  J.  Fmdlay  and  Karl  Breul. 
Lyte's  History  of  Eton  College  should  be  consulted  for  earlier 
centuries.  The  revolution  in  public-school  life  connected  with 
the  name  of  Thomas  Arnold  can  be  followed  in  Stanley's  Life  of 
Arnold,  in  the  volumes  of  Fitch  and  Findlay,  and  in  Hughes's 
famous  story  Tom  Brown's  School  Days.  Edward  Thring's 
Education  and  School  should  be  read  in  this  connection. 
Contemporary  conditions  are  dealt  with  by  Pascoe,  Breul,  and 
John  Corbin's  Schoolboy  Life  in  England,  Ford's  Public- 
School  Athletics,  in  Cookson's  Essays  on  Secondary  Education, 
is  a  paper  of  exceptional  value.  Several  thoughtful  articles  on 
British  athleticism  have  appeared  in  The  Spectator  (vols.  Ixvii, 
Ixix,  Ixxii),  in  The  Fortnightly  Review  (vol  Ixvii),  and  in  The 
Nineteenth  Century.  Kipling's  Stalky  and  Company  may  be 
read  as  an  antidote  to  Tom  Brown,  but  is  said  not  to  present  the 
point  of  view  of  the  average  English  boy. 

The  revival  of  learning  and  the  Eeformation  influ- 
enced the  English  universities  less  than  their  Conti- 
nental contemporaries.  Notwithstanding  the  introduc- 
tion of  Greek  and  a  few  modern  cosmological  concep- 
tions, Oxford  and  Cambridge  continued  strongly  ecclesi- 
astical and  dialectical  in  their  tendencies.  The  con- 
servative character  of  the  English  Eeformation  was  to  a 
large  extent  responsible  for  this  continuance  of  mediae- 
val ideals  in  university  culture.  Another  factor  made 
for  the  same  result — viz.,  the  strength  of  the  college  sys- 
tem. The  English  college  emerged  from  the  middle 
ages  a  powerful,  almost  independent,  self-governing  cor- 
poration. Dependent  directly  on  neither  church  nor 
state  for  support,  handing  doTVTi  traditions  from  one 
generation  to  another,  the  college  presented  an  effectual 
barrier  to  any  rapid  assimilation  of  the  intellectual 
movements  which  agitated  Europe. 


38  STUDENT  LIFE  AND  CUSTOMS. 

Tlie  college  exerted  the  same  conservative  influence 
on  the  student  life  of  the  times.  While  the  asceticism 
of  earlier  centuries  became  somewhat  relaxed  by  1600, 
the  common  life  within  college  walls  enjoined  by  the 
statutes  prevented  the  excesses  which  marked  student 
life  in  contemporary  Germany.  The  colleges  were  the 
chief  social  centres  in  the  university,  as  the  halls  were 
declining  in  importance,  and  societies  and  clubs  had 
not  yet  appeared.  The  only  rivals  of  the  colleges  in 
influence  were  the  inns  of  the  university  city.  The  lax- 
ity of  morals  and  of  theological  opinion  which  prevailed 
at  the  universities  was  a  cause  of  grave  anxiety  to  the 
Puritan  majority  in  Parliament  during  the  early  years 
of  the  seventeenth  century.  The  university  authorities, 
to  disarm  criticism,  endeavoured  to  enforce  a  series  of 
minute  regulations,  backed  by  numerous  fines  and  other 
punishments;  the  undergraduates  were  treated  like 
schoolboys.  The  students  manifested  their  resentment 
at  this  policy,  neglecting  the  rules,  annoying  their  in- 
structors, and  setting  the  authorities  at  defiance.  They 
frequently  engaged  in  conflicts  with  the  townsmen,  and 
were  notorious  for  their  rudeness  to  strangers.  Instead 
of  adopting  the  modest  costume  enjoined  by  their  su- 
periors, they  appeared  on  the  streets  "  in  hoses  of  un- 
seemly greatness  or  disguised  fashion,  excessive  rufls 
and  apparrell  of  velvet  and  silk." 

The  amusements  of  the  period  were  rude  and  bois- 
terous. Excessive  eating  and  drinking  and  theological 
discussions  of  a  bitter  personal  kind  were  frequent. 
The  prevalent  forms  of  sport  were  barbarous,  and  in- 
cluded bull-baiting  and  bear-baiting.  A  letter  from 
James  I  forbade  these  diversions  and  games  of  chance 
within  five  miles  of  a  town  or  university.  Latin  and 
English  plays  of  a  doubtful  character  formed  the  chief 
source  of  intellectual  diversion.  These  productions 
abounded  in  grossness  and  personalities,  and  resulted  in 


STUDENT  LIFE  IN  EUROPE.  39 

much  ill  feeling.  On  one  occasion  the  prominent  citi- 
zens of  Cambridge  were  invited  to  a  play  given  in  their 
special  honour.  To  their  amazement  and  disgust,  the 
drama  .proved  to  be  a  series  of  caricatures,  ridiculing  the 
prominent  characters  in  the  audience.  The  worst  plays 
were  written  in  Latin  and  performed  in  the  inns  of 
the  city. 

A  new  period  in  English  student  life  begins  with 
the  last  decades  of  the  seventeenth  century.  The  old 
severity  of  discipline  and  barbarism  of  manners  disap- 
peared; the  social  atmosphere  of  the  coffee-house  and 
the  club  began  to  be  felt  within  college  bounds.  Xew 
social  groups  based  on  personal  tastes  arose,  which  were 
the  forerunners  of  the  existing  student  societies.  Dur- 
ing the  eighteenth  century  life  in  the  universities  be- 
came more  and  more  the  imitation  of  high  life  in  Lon- 
don. In  the  most  fashionable  circles  heavy  drinking 
was  not  the  rule,  although  in  some  of  the  slow-going 
colleges  stories  were  told  of  debauchery  in  even  the 
common  and  combination  rooms.  The  popular  social 
diversions  took  the  form  either  of  card  parties  with 
heavy  wagers,  or  of  private  theatricals.  Students  in- 
dulged themselves  with  party  quarrels  and  disorders  in 
the  public  inns.  The  out-of-door  sports  showed  the 
same  aristocratic:^ tendency.  Riding,  fox-hunting,  and 
attendance  at  horse  races  were  the  popular  diversions. 
The  competitive  games  of  the  present — boating,  foot- 
ball, and  cricket — were  known,  but  little  practised,  and 
held  in  still  less  esteem  by  the  leaders  of  college  fash- 
ion. The  students  devoted  their  vacations  to  long  pe- 
destrian excursions  through  Scotland,  Switzerland,  and 
Germany. 

The  clubs,  which  formed  so  important  an  element 
in  the  social  life  of  London,  soon  made  their  appearance 
in  the  universities.  Of  these,  the  political  clubs  were  of 
greatest  importance.     As  the  eighteenth  century  was 


40  STUDENT  LIFE  AND  CUSTOMS. 

pre-eminently  the  age  of  politics  and  party  strife  in 
England,  the  universities  in  this  mirrored  the  most 
important  activity  of  the  period.  One  of  the  first  clubs, 
the  record  of  which  has  come  down  to  us,  was  the  Con- 
stitution Club  (1703)  of  Oxford,  which  held  meetings 
in  King's  Head  Tavern,  on  High  Street.  Its  Whig 
proclivities  gave  great  offence  to  the  Toryism  of  the 
university.  On  one  occasion,  when  the  Constitution- 
alists were  about  to  celebrate  some  party  victory  with 
a  bonfire,  a  numerous  mob  seized  the  fagots  and  as- 
saulted the  room  in  which  the  club  was  sitting  with 
brickbats  and  stones.  Older  yet  was  the  True  Blue 
Club  of  Cambridge,  which  took  its  colour  in  opposition 
to  the  orange  of  King  William  III.  Its  members  wore 
a  peculiar  costume,  and  were  noted  throughout  the  uni- 
versity as  being  hard  drinkers.  The  Tory  Club  of 
Oxford  was  known  as  the  High  Borlace,  and  gave  an 
annual  ball.  Debating  societies  existed  during  this 
period,  but,  owing  to  their  relative  insignificance,  the 
record  of  their  proceedings  is  difhcult  to  obtain.  One 
of  the  best  known  of  these  was  called  the  Speculative,  in 
honour  of  the  great  society  of  Edinburgh.  It  met  once 
a  week  in  term  time,  and  numbered  among  its  members 
several  men  who  afterward  became  famous.  Another 
organization  of  particular  interest  was  called  the  Asso- 
ciators,  a  society  of  university  politicians,  who  asserted 
the  right  of  appeal  from  the  vice-chancellor's  court. 

More  akin  to  the  true  aim  of  university  education 
were  the  literary  clubs,  of  which  we  catch  glimpses  from 
time  to  time.  At  Cambridge  records  remain  of  three 
such  societies  during  the  eighteenth  century.  One  of 
the  most  famous  of  these,  "  The  Old  Maids,"  to  which 
many  celebrated  savants  belonged,  met  at  a  coffee-house 
after  evening  chapel,  for  the  benefit  of  literary  conversa- 
tion. The  Zodiak  Club,  which  arose  in  1725,  was  com- 
posed of  twelve  members,  who  took  their  names  from 


STUDENT  LIFE  IN  EUROPE.  41 

the  twelve  signs.  Three  years  later,  six  planets  were 
added.  The  members  of  the  club  pledged  themselves 
to  recommend  and  elect  only  fellow-clubmen  to  all 
offices  within  their  disposal.  The  Wranglers,  of  Cam- 
bridge, established  the  Hyson  Club  in  1758,  while  Ox- 
ford rejoiced  in  the  possession  of  a  Poetic  Club. 

Other  clubs  aimed  simply  to  promote  sociability. 
Such  were  the  Xonsense  Club,  the  Jelly-bag  Club,  the 
Banterers,  and  Free  Cynics  of  the  University  of  Oxford. 
It  was  a  custom  of  the  Banterers  to  talk  at  a  venture;  if 
they  observed  a  man  talking  seriously,  "  they  talked 
florid  nonsense  back  and  cared  not  what  he  said,  which 
is  like  throwing  a  cushion  at  a  man's  head  who  pretends 
to  be  grave  and  wise.''  The  Free  Cynics  were  a  philo- 
sophical club  who  had  a  series  of  symbolical  words  and 
grimaces  unintelligible  to  any  but  of  their  own  society. 
More  truly  representative  of  the  age  was  a  select  social 
club  which  existed  in  Cambridge  in  1790.  The  twelve 
members  of  the  group  appeared  in  coats  of  bright  green, 
lined  and  bound  with  buff  silk,  with  buttons  made  ex- 
pressly for  them  upon  which  "Sans  Souci"  was  elegant- 
ly engraved;  the  waistcoat  curiously  adorned  Avith  frogs 
was  of  buff  material;  the  knee-breeches  were  the  same 
colour.  Once  a  week  the  members  gathered  in  each 
other's  rooms  to  play  for  high  stakes;  each  month  they 
dined  together,  the  members  bringing  their  friends.  At 
the  end  of  the  year  a  grand  anniversary  was  celebrated. 

None  of  these  organizations  were  permanent  nor 
were  they  directed  to  the  accomplishment  of  any  impor- 
tant aim;  they  were  simply  groups  of  congenial  persons 
who  gathered  together  to  enjoy  each  other's  society,  and 
at  times  incidentally  allied  themselves  to  a  political 
party  of  some  improvement  scheme.  They  were  one 
of  the  sources  of  amusement  of  a  generation  which  loved 
leisure.  Perhaps  no  other  student  organizations  which 
ever  existed  possessed  so  little  of  the  academic  flavour. 


42  STUDENT   LIFE  AND  CUSTOMS. 

This  absence  of  the  academic  spirit  and  ideals  was 
due  to  the  fact  that  during  the  eighteenth  century  the 
English  universities  ceased  to  educate  in  any  active 
sense  of  the  word.  The  students  passed  their  pre- 
scribed terms  within  college  precincts,  spending  their 
time  for  the  most  part  as  they  saw  fit.  A  few  honour 
men  read  for  distinction,  and  all  were  to  a  certain  ex- 
tent influenced  by  literary  associations  and  contact  with 
learning,  but  there  was  little  systematic  educational 
training.  With  the  nineteenth  century  came  a  greater 
strenuousness  and  sense  of  responsibility;  college  fel- 
lowships were  thrown  open,  and  the  requirements  for 
graduation  made  more  stringent.  From  1800  to  1830 
a  widespread  internal  reform  gradually  crept  from  one 
college  to  another.  The  ideal  of  university  education 
held  up  by  the  reformers  was,  however,  largely  the  re- 
sult of  the  social  and  aristocratic  conditions  of  the 
eighteenth  century.  Thus,  during  the  present  century, 
the  aim  of  English  university  education  has  been  in 
marked  contrast  to  the  German  ideal  prevalent  on  the 
Continent.  The  glory  of  the  German  university  has 
been  its  thirst  for  truth  and  eager  invasion  of  the  unex- 
plored fields  of  knowledge;  it  has  aimed  to  produce 
learned  savants  and  competent  state  officials.  The 
English  have  divorced  teaching  from  investigation;  in- 
stead of  specialists,  they  have  intended  to  send  forth 
"  gentlemen."  Says  Cardinal  Newman:  "  Liberal  edu- 
cation makes  the  gentleman,  the  individual  of  cultivated 
intellect,  delicate  taste,  of  candid,  equitable,  dispassion- 
ate mind,  of  noble  and  courteous  bearing  in  the  con- 
duct of  life.  University  training  is  the  great  and 
ordinary  means  to  great  and  ordinary  ends;  it  aims  at 
raising  the  intellectual  tone  of  society,  at  cultivating 
the  public  mind,  at  purifying  the  national  taste,  at  sup- 
plying true  principles  to  popular  enthusiasm  and  fixed 
aims  to  popular  aspiration,  at  giving  enlargement  and 


STUDENT  LIFE  IN   EUROPE.  43 

sobriety  to  the  ideas  of  tlie  age,  at  facilitating  the  exer- 
cise of  political  power,  and  of  refining  the  intercourse 
of  private  life."  Such  a  conception  magnifies  the  so- 
cial function  of  the  university;  liberal  culture  as  thus 
described  is  as  much  the  creation  of  student  associations 
and  intercourse  as  of  the  mastery  of  definite  books  or 
sciences.  The  discussions  of  the  common  room  and 
the  debating  club,  the  contests  on  the  river,  the  dra- 
matics of  the  university  theatre,  are  as  essential  por- 
tions of  training  as  the  lectures  or  examinations. 

The  atmosphere  of  the  two  universities  with  their 
ancient  foundations,  their  splendid  and  venerable  archi- 
tecture and  medieval  traditions,  has  been  favourable 
to  the  growth  and  realization  of  such  an  ideal  of  liberal 
culture.  Matthew  Arnold's  characterization  of  Oxford 
represents  the  feelings  of  many  observers.*  English- 
men have  felt  that  to  reside  in  Oxford  or  Cambridge  was 
in  itself  a  liberal  education.  The  combination  of  old 
and  new,  the  perfection  of  the  beauty  of  Nature  and  of 
art,  make  these  university  cities  unsurpassed  among  the 
cities  of  the  world.  An  American  has  described  the 
impression  which  residence  at  Oxford  left  on  his  mind 
years  afterward.  "  I  have  heard  the  Master  of  Balliol 
preach  on  friendship  and  draw  delightful  dreamy  pic- 
tures with  his  perfect  English  and  rich  voice.  I  con- 
fess that  sometimes  now,  around  Oxford  and  its  towers, 
there  hangs  in  my  mind  the  soft,  dreamy  haze  w^hich 
pervaded  his  pictures.  Xowhere  else  has  the  spell  of 
the  ages  so  thro^\^l  the  halo  of  romance  around  the 
flying  hours." 

The  common  life  of  the  college  is  the  central  fea- 
ture of  English  academic  society.  It  enables  tutor  and 
student  to  come  together  on  easy  terms  and  facilitates 
intercourse  between  groups  of  friends.     The  presence 

*  Discourses  in  America,  article  Emerson. 


44  STUDENT  LIFE  AND  CUSTOMS. 

of  college  fellows^  men  standing  for  the  highest  type  of 
culture,  gives  conversation  a  more  elevated  tone  than 
when  the  undergraduates  are  left  to  themselves.  An 
American  observer  has  said  that  nowhere  has  the  art 
of  social  intercourse  been  carried  to  such  perfection  as 
in  some  of  the  Oxford  colleges. 

The  college  serves  as  a  unit  of  university  organiza- 
tion; each  college  has  its  own  set  of  clubs,  athletic,  de- 
bating, literary,  and  social.  Of  these,  the  athletic  is  the 
most  important  to  the  average  undergraduate.  Collegi- 
ate good  fellowship  is  to  a  considerable  degree  depend- 
ent on  the  extent  to  which  these  institutions  are  sup- 
ported. The  college  clubs  serve  as  preparatory  institu- 
tions in  training  men  for  university  distinctions.  The 
comparatively  large  number  of  colleges  at  Oxford  and 
Cambridge  and  the  variety  of  the  forms  of  training  give 
almost  every  man  an  opportunity  to  acquit  himself  with 
some  degree  of  credit.  The  college  debating  societies 
likewise  perform  a  valuable  function  in  training  men 
who  have  neither  ability  nor  courage  to  make  them- 
selves heard  at  the  Union.  Thus,  a  weary  speech, 
crowded  with  statistics,  and  delivered  by  a  hard-working 
scholar,  will  be  listened  to  with  a  semblance  of  atten- 
tion, or  duly  applauded  at  one  of  the  college  clubs;  such 
a  one  would  never  obtain  a  hearing  in  a  larger  or- 
ganization. Whimsical  nonsense  is  common  and  forms 
an  agreeable  interlude  to  the  more  serious  speeches. 
These  small  clubs  are  great  sticklers  for  the  forms  of 
debate  and  make  much  of  any  slight  infractions  of  its 
rules.  The  president  is  vigilantly  watched,  and  if  he 
inadvertently  omits  some  technical  formula  is  sure  to 
find  a  vote  of  censure  upon  him  immediately.  Such 
skirmishes  are  always  conducted  with  the  utmost  good 
humour. 

Literary  and  book  clubs  are  common,  but  lack  the 
ability  of  the  debating  societies.  They  are  also  less  oner- 


STUDENT  LIFE  IN  EUROPE.  45 

ous  in  the  demands  which  they  make  on  their  mem- 
bers. These  clubs  derive  their  name  from  some  "  great 
one  "  whose  personality  kindles  the  enthusiasm  of  their 
founders,  but  are  sometimes  simply  known  as  the  col- 
lege essay  society.  A  regular  meeting  is  held  at  set  in- 
tervals, when  each  member  in  turn  reads  an  essay  on 
some  literary  topic  which  is  then  discussed.  Although 
professing  a  literary  object,  they  are  from  the  necessi- 
ties of  the  case  social  institutions  as  well. 

Purely  social  in  their  aims  are  the  wine  clubs  which 
are  now  something  of  an  anachronism  at  the  Eng- 
lish universities.  In  the  day  of  their  prosperity,  forty 
years  since,  they  recruited  their  membership  from  the 
best  men  of  the  college  and  formed  an  inner  society, 
which  gave  tone  to  the  rest  of  the  college.  Now  the 
feeling  in  most  colleges  is  against  them,  as  out  of  keep- 
ing with  the  more  democratic  character  of  modern  stu- 
dent life.  Those  s,till  in  existence  are,  in  most  cases, 
of  considerable  antiquity  and  are  fenced  about  with  a 
good  deal  of  quaint  custom  and  a  fair  share  of  formal- 
ity. Their  members  adorn  themselves  in  a  distin- 
guishing coat  of  a  particular  pattern.  "While  the  novel 
sensations  of  strangeness  are  pleasant  to  a  newcomer, 
the  continued  round  of  formalities  and  ill-assorted 
character  of  the  members  make  the  meetings  irksome. 
Far  different  are  the  private  "  wines,"  which  are  essen- 
tially social  gatherings  of  men  who  know  each  other 
well.  In  reality  such  a  meeting  is  not  a  formal  "  wine," 
but  a  mutual  smoke  and  talk,  or  perhaps  a  regular 
symposium  with  cards  and  music  intermingled.  In 
either  case  it  contains  that  which  is  the  kerilel  of 
college  life — the  pleasure  of  being  together  and  dis- 
cussing with  one's  friends  whatever  is  nearest  one's 
heart,  whether  athletics,  literature,  or  social  philos- 
ophy. 

The  numbers  and  leisure  of  an  English  college  fa- 


46  STUDENT  LIFE  AND  CUSTOMS. 

vour  the  growth  of  social  sets  or  cliques,  many  of  which 
become  institutionalized  in  the  clubs  which  have  been 
described.  The  two  most  marked  sets  are  the  aesthetes 
and  the  athletes,  between  which  there  is  much  bitter- 
ness and  contempt.  On  one  occasion  the  athletes  in- 
vaded a  room  belonging  to  one  of  the  aesthetic  set  who 
had  spoken  disrespectfully  of  the  college  boat,  and  de- 
stroyed the  fancy  china  and  knickknacks.  The  bump 
supper,  celebrating  the  success  of  the  college  boat,  was 
in  a  former  generation,  one  of  the  distinctive  social 
events  of  the  season.  It  was  uproarious  with  speeches, 
hurrahing,  songs,  and  practical  jokes.  In  the  intoxica- 
tion of  the  moment  deeds  of  valour  were  attempted 
which  afterward  removed  the  heroes  from  the  scene  of 
their  prowess.  Such  a  celebration  served  as  an  outlet 
for  surplus  energy,  and  resulted  in  much  good  fellow- 
ship and  kindling  of  enthusiasm,  without  doing  much 
permanent  harm.  Their  popularity  is  on  the  wane, 
and  in  a  few  years  they  will  pass  away. 

Mention  has  been  made  of  the  sporadic  debating  and 
political  societies  which  appeared  at  the  English  uni- 
versities during  the  eighteenth  century.  Early  in  the 
nineteenth  century  these  clubs  were  consolidated  into 
the  Oxford  and  Cambridge  Unions,  the  most  famous  of 
student  debating  societies.  By  the  side  of  the  Union 
strong  political  clubs  have  appeared,  offering  training 
of  the  same  character.  "When  these  are  added  to  the 
regular  debating  clubs  of  the  colleges,  an  idea  is  ob- 
tained of  the  extent  of  the  preparation  afforded  the 
English  youth  for  public  life. 

The  Cambridge  Union  was  formed,  as  its  name  im- 
plies, by  the  consolidation  of  several  small  clubs  in  1816; 
the  Oxford  Union  resulted  from  a  similar  move  in  1823. 
Although  small,  the  Oxford  Union  included  the  social 
and  intellectual  elite  of  the  university  among  its  mem- 
bers.    A  few  years  after  its  birth  the  debates  were  of 


STUDENT   LIFE   IN  EUROPE.  47 

sufficient  importance  to  receive  adverse  criticism  from 
leading  London  newspapers.  It  early  manifested  great 
seriousness  of  purpose;  a  full  set  of  parliamentary  de- 
bates was  purchased  for  the  library,  while  all  novels, 
even  those  of  Scott  and  Dickens,  were  excluded.  In 
1829  the  heroic  age  of  the  Union  began.  In  the  suc- 
ceeding five  years,  such  men  as  Gladstone,  Sidney  Her- 
bert, Lord  Selborne,  Eobert  Lowe,  and  Dr.  Tait,  after- 
ward Archbishop  of  Canterbur}',  gained  the  L^nion  a 
position  at  Oxford  which  it  has  since  maintained.  In 
183-1  a  writer  in  the  Oxford  L^niversity  Magazine  spoke 
of  the  U'nion  in  the  highest  terms  as  an  instrumentality 
which  "  brings  together  many  of  the  most  distinguished 
young  men  of  the  university  and  exercises  a  great  effect 
on  the  general  tone  of  society."  In  this  early  period 
the  U^nion  oftentimes  suffered  from  internal  dissen- 
sions. On  one  memorable  occasion  it  barely  escaped 
dissolution;  later  the  members  were  divided  into  two 
hostile  factions,  one  of  which  attempted  to  expel  the 
other.  The  debate  resulted  in  an  intense  excitement, 
which  was  immortalized  in  an  excellent  mock  heroic. 
The  L^nion  condemned  the  Eeform  Bill  by  a  vote  of 
eighty  to  fifty-four. 

Charles  Astor  Bristed,  of  Yale,  whose  career  at  Cam- 
bridge fell  within  the  early  forties,  left  an  interesting 
account  of  the  Cambridge  Union,  of  which  he  was  a 
member.  Compared  with  the  average  American  col- 
lege of  the  same  period,  interest  in  public  speaking  was 
weak  at  Cambridge.  "  Mere  oratory  is  about  as  much 
valued  by  the  English  as  mere  scholarship  with  us." 
The  debates  were  sometimes  adjourned  in  half  an  hour 
for  lack  of  speeches;  the  offices  frequently  went  a  beg- 
ging, and  at  a  contested  election  not  more  than  three 
hundred  and  fifty  votes  were  polled  out  of  a  possible 
twelve  hundred.  The  Union  was  subject  to  brief 
periodic  fits  of  excitement  caused  by  the  consideration 


48  STUDENT  LIFE  AND  CUSTOMS. 

of  some  burning  popular  issue.  While  these  periods  of 
interest  were  on,  the  society  evinced  its  vitality  by  a 
series  of  rows  which  usually  took  the  form  of  an  elec- 
tion contest  between  the  reading  men  and  the  rowing 
men.  Owing  to  better  organization,  the  reading  men 
or  scholars  most  frequently  won;  their  opponents  con- 
soled themselves  by  making  disturbances  and  annoying 
the  assembly.  The  speakers  of  the  Union  were  less 
fluent  than  the  ordinary  American  college  graduate. 

Personal  controversies,  involving  bitter  factional 
fights  within  the  society,  and  exciting  election  contests, 
form  the  staple  incidents  recorded  of  the  Oxford  Union 
during  its  middle  period  (1840-1860),  the  time  of  Lord 
Robert  Cecil  (now  Marquis  of  Salisbury)  and  Mr. 
Knatchbull-Hugessen;  the  Conservatives  were  in  the 
ascendency  and  carried  protection  resolutions  by  a  vote 
of  one  hundred  and  two  to  thirty-one.  Occasionally 
literary  and  theological  subjects  found  their  way  into 
the  Union  debates.  By  a  vote  of  forty-two  to  twenty- 
one  a  resolution  was  defeated  which  declared  "  that  Mr. 
Thackeray's  writings  are  not  distinguished  by  any  great 
ability,  and  their  tendency  is  not  good."  The  admission 
of  religious  papers  to  the  library  was  carried  by  a  vote 
of  twenty-nine  to  twenty-five. 

At  their  inception  the  Unions  were  exclusively  so- 
cieties for  intellectual  training  which  met  from  time 
to  time  in  college  rooms;  their  needs  soon  demanded  a 
library  and  reading  room,  and  finally  a  separate  build- 
ing. By  1840  there  was  a  large  class  of  members  who 
joined  the  Union  to  obtain  the  privileges  of  the  read- 
ing room.  At  the  present  time  the  Unions  are  the 
clubs  for  a  majority  of  students.  It  is  their  recreation 
ground  for  afternoon  and  evening,  the  place  where 
they  can  write  and  smoke,  play  chess  and  billiards,  read 
books,  and  occasionally  indulge  in  their  taste  for  pub- 
lic  speaking.     A   man  pays   rather   more   than   three 


STUDEXT  LIFE   IN  EUROPE.  49 

pounds  a  year  for  three  years,  and  during  that  time  he 
has  all  the  letters  written  by  him  in  the  Union  stamped 
gratis,  and  the  free  use  forever  of  all  kinds  of  station- 
ery, of  about  one  hundred  papers  and  periodicals  and  a 
library  of  twenty  thousand  volumes.  "  It  is  in  the 
Union  that  there  is  to  be  found  the  true  social  life  of 
Oxford,  the  life  which  really  determines  Oxford  char- 
acter ''  (Pemberton). 

In  the  last  sixty  years  the  Unions  have  developed  a 
style  of  oratory  calculated  to  please  an  assemblage  of 
young  men  who  like  to  be  amused,  and  have  only  a  gen- 
eral and  not  always  very  serious  interest  in  the  questions 
they  discuss.  The  audiences  are  the  most  impatient 
and  critical  that  can  be  found;  a  nervous  or  aifected 
speaker  stands  no  chance  before  them,  sentiment  and 
rhetoric  are  rarely  tolerated,  and  dulness  never.  The 
ideal  union  speech  bristles  with  brilliant  antithesis 
and  epigram;  the  style  tends  to  be  flashy  and  superfi- 
cial, and  the  matter  frequently  resembles  newspaper 
leaders.  The  subjects  which  attract  the  audiences  are 
those  which  contain  dramatic  possibilities,  such  as  the 
painting  of  social  evils  in  eloquent  terms  or  personal 
issues  between  well-known  leaders.  Many  of  the  mod- 
ern debates  are  a  mere  tour  de  force  between  two  or  at 
the  most  four  party  giants  of  opposing  camps.  After 
their  speeches  the  debate  collapses  from  want  of  real 
interest  in  the  subject  discussed.  The  most  popular 
occasions  are  those  which  give  rise  to  personal  dif- 
ferences culminating  in  repartee  and  sarcasm.  One 
speaker  may  characterize  his  opponent's  speech  as  non- 
sense. Threatened  with  fine  or  apology  by  the  presid- 
ing officer,  the  incorrigible  replies,  "  Sir,  I  beg  the  hon- 
ourable member's  pardon  for  insinuating  that  it  re- 
quired any  ingenuity  on  his  part  to  talk  nonsense." 
More  than  three  hundred  men  roar  for  a  time  at  this 
sally;  the  speaker  has  made  the  hit  of  the  evening. 
4 


50  STUDENT  LIFE  AND  CUSTOMS. 

The  large  political  clubs,  like  the  Palmerston  and 
Canning,  Chatham  and  Enssell,  at  Oxford,  are  fre- 
quented by  the  budding  politicians,  and  form  a  valuable 
supplement  to  the  Unions.  At  their  meetings  excel- 
lent papers  are  sometimes  read  on  topics  of  general  in- 
terest, while  their  debates  show  a  wide  range  of  views 
on  the  political  and  social  questions  of  the  day.  From 
their  practice  of  meeting  in  the  rooms  of  the  different 
members  they  contribute  in  no  small  degree  to  an  in- 
terchange of  views  and  hospitalities  between  men  of 
different  colleges.  Their  annual  dinners  bring  them 
into  contact  with  the  authorities  and  various  political 
celebrities  of  the  outside  world. 

The  debating  and  political  societies  are  recognised 
as  important  factors  in  the  social  and  intellectual  life 
of  the  universities.  They  bring  the  mass  of  the  under- 
graduates together  and  give  them  a  serious  interest  in 
the  great  issues  of  the  day.  They  accustom  their  mem- 
bers to  a  wide  diversity  of  views,  and  consequently  make 
against  intolerance  and  arrogance. 

The  early  years  of  the  nineteenth  century  witnessed 
a  complete  change  in  the  attitude  of  the  English  stu- 
dent toward  athletics.  It  is  no  longer  the  occasional 
student  who  rows  or  plays  football  or  cricket  when 
fancy  dictates;  now  almost  every  undergraduate  as  a 
matter  of  course  follows  some  sport.  Athletics  are  not 
only  the  most  picturesque  feature  of  Oxford  and  Cam- 
bridge life,  but  also  form  the  chief  ties  Avhich  bring  men 
together.  Chronologically,  boating  was  developed  first, 
followed  by  cricket,  football,  track  and  field  athletics. 
The  athletic  movement  in  the  university  has  been 
paralleled  by  an  imprecedented  growth  in  the  popu- 
larity of  games  among  the  English  people.  In  the 
widespread  demand  for  strenuous  exercise,  the  public 
schools  seem  to  have  taken  the  initiative  rather  than 
the  universities:  in  truth,  university  athletics,  with  the 


STUDENT  LIFE   IN  EUROPE.  51 

exception  of  boating,  are  the  outgrowth  of  the  public 
schools. 

Boating  is  by  all  odds  the  most  engrossing  pursuit 
followed  by  the  Oxford  and  Cambridge  undergraduate. 
The  majority  of  the  members  in  many  colleges  have 
at  some  period  been  connected  with  the  college  boat, 
rowing  being  compatible  with  more'  serious  pursuits. 
"  The  river,  its  pleasures  and  duties,  form  a  pivot 
around  which  swing,  in  varying  but  increasing  force, 
torpids  *  and  eights,  training  breakfasts  and  college 
rags,  each  and  all  embodying  in  their  own  particular 
way  the  life  of  the  college  ^'  (J.  S.  G.  Pemberton).  It  is 
the  meeting  place  of  all  types  and  conditions  of  univer- 
sity people,  including  dons  and  college  servants,  all  of 
whom  crowd  around  a  stretch  of  water  not  more  than  a 
mile  long  and  five  or  six  rods  wide.  Many  a  quiet 
student  likewise  owns  his  shell  or  canoe,  and  obtains  the 
exercise  necessary  for  health  and  work.  On  the  annual 
races,  each  college  is  represented  by  a  crew,  and  so 
keen  is  the  competition  that  it  has  been  said  that  the 
position  of  a  college  on  the  river  is,  in  the  vast  majority 
of  cases,  a  true  index  to  its  intellectual  position  in  the 
university.  During  commencement,  the  river  becomes 
a  grand  holiday  scene  for  miles  in  each  direction;  water 
parties  from  the  different  colleges  occur  frequently. 
The  river  is  instinct  with  the  social  side  of  Oxford  life. 
It  provides  a  healthy  rivalry  between  the  colleges, 
which  does  much  to  maintain  the  tone  of  successive  gen- 
erations of  college  men. 

Cricket  is  second  in  importance  to  boating,  both  in 
general  popularity  and  in  the  extent  to  which  it  is 
played.  Cricket,  however,  can  not  be  learned  at  the 
university,  and  its  charms  are  only  for  those  under- 
graduates who  come  from  the  public  schools.     Conse- 

*  The  second-class  racing  boats  at  Oxford  are  called  "torpids." 


52  STUDENT  LIFE  AND  CUSTOMS. 

quently,  the  cricket  players  form  a  specialized  class;  the 
college,  as  a  whole,  has  far  less  interest  in  its  eleven 
than  in  its  eight.  As  an  instrument  of  sociability 
cricket  is  inferior  to  boating,  because  it  does  not  bring 
about  that  intimacy  between  leaders  and  the  rank  and 
file  which  is  to  be  found  on  the  river.  While  boating 
is  a  bond  between  the  different  sets  and  types  of  men  in 
a  college,  cricket  tends  to  form  and  foster  more  or  less 
exclusive  sets,  who  hold  aloof  from  the  rest  of  col- 
lege life. 

Football  as  a  game  for  university  men  is  a  recent  in- 
novation. It  was  practically  unknown  at  Oxford  fifty 
years  ago;  now  it  is  a  popular  pursuit  during  the  winter 
months.  It  is  a  pre-eminently  democratic  game,  afford- 
ing amusement  and  exercise  to  many  who  have  not  the 
time  or  inclination  for  boating.  Football  excites  more 
interest  outside  university  precincts  than  any  other 
sport  except  boating.  Like  boating,  it  brings  together 
men  who  come  from  different  schools  and  thus  tends  to 
break  down  the  lines  of  public-school  caste,  and  enables 
the  men  from  different  colleges  to  know  each  other. 
Next  to  boating  it  is  the  pursuit  most  representative  of 
the  modern  social  life  of  Oxford. 

Field  and  track  athletics  and  hunting  are  specialized 
pursuits  followed  by  the  few.  The  leading  lights  in 
these  amusements  are  generally  known  long  before  they 
arrive  at  the  university,  and  when  matriculated  keep 
themselves  apart  from  their  fellow-collegians,  forming 
a  distinct  athletic  set.  The  interest  of  each  college  in 
general  athletics  is  confined  to  one  or  two  days  in  the 
year.  These  occasions  are  more  remarkable  for  socia- 
bility and  good  feeling  than  for  the  proficiency  exhib- 
ited by  the  majority  in  the  sports  of  the  day.  Hunting 
is,  by  reason  of  its  expense,  confined  to  the  wealthy  and 
aristocratic  portion  of  the  undergraduates,  and  num- 
bers few  devotees.     Walking  is  a  mode  of  exercise  par- 


STUDENT  LIFE  IN  EUROPE.  53 

ticularly  popular  at  Cambridge  among  the  reading  men. 
To  cover  fifteen  miles  in  three  hours  is  a  common 
achievement. 

The  existence  of  separate  colleges  within  the  imiver- 
sity  greatly  simplifies  the  problem  of  organization. 
Mention  has  already  been  made  of  the  full  set  of  ath- 
letic clubs  maintained  by  each  college.  The  athletic 
interests  of  the  entire  university  are  provided  for  by  a 
number  of  general  clubs,  one  for  each  branch  of  sport. 
The  interference  of  academic  authorities  in  the  attempt 
to  check  abuses  is  unheard  of,  chiefly  because  the  ath- 
letic traditions  among  the  undergraduates  is  sufificiently 
strong  to  preserve  a  healthy  athletic  spirit.  The 
greater  maturity  of  the  average  English  collegian  is  an- 
other factor  which  makes  for  clean  sport. 

While  the  percentage  of  undergraduates  actively 
participating  in  athletics  is  much  greater  than  in 
America,  the  contests  lack  the  fierceness  of  energy  and 
sense  of  tension  which  accompany  similar  trials  of  skill 
across  the  Atlantic.  The  English  seem  to  play  more  for 
the  love  of  sport  and  less  from  a  desire  to  beat  some- 
body than  their  American  cousins.  Controversies  over 
details  of  matches  and  recriminations  back  and  forth 
seldom  occur.  The  athletic  class  is  more  highly  differ- 
entiated from  the  mass  of  the  students  than  in  the 
United  States,  but  there  is  an  absence  of  professional- 
ism in  the  worst  sense  of  the  term — e.  g.,  outsiders  Sbre 
not  hired  to  attend  college  for  the  only  purpose  of  par- 
ticipating in  athletics. 

We  have  yet  to  speak  of  a  number  of  miscellaneous 
organizations  of  minor  significance,  the  most  notable 
of  which  are  the  university  social  clubs,  patterned  after 
the  ordinary  club  of  London.  The  clubs  of  Oxford  are 
the  Bullingdon,  Vincents,  and  Gridiron.  Of  these,  the 
Bullingdon  is  the  most  exclusive,  and  was  formerly  the 
most  popular,  although  in  late  years  it  has  abdicated 


54  STUDENT  LIFE   AND   CUSTOMS. 

the  leadership  in  favour  of  Vincents.  Membership  in 
Vincents  is  coveted  by  all  the  undergraduates  who  re- 
gard social  success  as  an  important  part  of  their  aca- 
demic career.  Its  membership  is  largely  made  up  of 
successful  athletes^  although  it  usually  secures  the  most 
popular  men  from  all  the  colleges  regardless  of  muscle. 
Still,  in  some  quarters,  Vincents  is  regarded  as  an  ath- 
letic clique.  It  plays  an  important  part  in  the  social 
life  of  -Oxford,  forming  a  centre  where  men  from  the 
different  colleges  can  meet  and  entertain  their  friends 
with  less  formality  than  would  be  required  in  their 
colleges.  The  Gridiron,  comparatively  a  new  club,  is 
a  protest  against  the  athleticism  of  Vincents.  It  has 
been  a  moderate  success,  without  threatening  the  posi- 
tion held  by  its  rival. 

The  more  important  public  schools  are  represented 
by  clubs  of  graduates  at  the  universities.  The  Eton 
Club  of  Oxford  is  a  typical  organization  of  this  class. 
All  the  Etonians  at  Oxford  belong  to  the  club,  although 
there  is  little  sociability  or  good  fellowship  in  its  rooms. 
Starched  sobriety  is  usually  in  order,  but  the  latent  so- 
cial force  occasionally  breaks  through  the  crust  and  a 
revival  of  interest  takes  place.  The  Winchester  Club  is 
much  smaller,  because  only  a  portion  of  the  Wykemists 
join  it.  Its  small  membership,  however,  makes  it  a 
social  body  of  influence. 

§  4.  Student  Life  at  the  English  Public  Schools. 

The  term  public  school  is  applied  to  a  small  group  of 
expensive,  aristocratic  boarding  schools  of  the  second- 
ary grade.  These  institutions  are  typical  products  of 
the  English  national  spirit;  they  are  exclusive  in  char- 
acter, and  independent  of  each  other  and  the  state  in 
their  administration.  Unlike  the  chief  secondary 
schools  of  the  Continent,  each  foundation  possesses  an 


STUDENT  LIFE  IN  EUROPE.  55 

individuality  of  its  own,  and  stands  for  a  definite  ideal 
in  education.  The  nearest  approach  to  the  English 
public  schools  in  constitution  are  the  large  academies 
and  preparatory  schools  of  the  United  States,  like 
Phillips  Andover,  Lawrenceville,  and  Groton.  These 
schools,  however,  can  not  for  a  moment  be  compared 
with  their  English  contemporaries  in  influence  or  im- 
portance, being  overshadowed  by  an  efficient  system  of 
municipal  high  schools  on  one  side  and  by  the  colleges 
on  the  other.  Next  to  the  universities  among  the 
educational  institutions  of  England,  the  public  schools 
strike  their  roots  deepest  into  the  past.  The  oldest  en- 
dowment, that  of  Winchester,  dates  from  1387;  Eton, 
the  most  important,  from  1441.  The  other  historic 
schools — Shrewsbury,  Westminster,  Rugby,  Charter- 
house, and  Harrow — were  the  creations  of  the  sixteenth 
century.  A  number  of  schools  of  this  grade  have  been 
established  in  the  present  century,  but  their  founders 
have  in  every  instance  sought  to  approximate  the  old, 
historic  type.  Thus  the  public  school  is  in  its  essen- 
tials an  organic  growth  of  English  life  rather  than  a 
creation  of  legislators  or  educators. 

During  the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth  centuries  the 
public  schools  were  the  seats  of  a  hardy,  independent 
student  life.  Each  school  had  its  customs  and  school- 
boy dialects,  which  were  handed  down  from  one  genera- 
tion to  another,  and  possessed  its  own  particular  form 
of  football,  handball  (fives),  or  tennis,  which  in  many 
cases  grew  out  of  the  peculiarities  of  the  school  build- 
ings and  grounds.  AATien  the  rigour  of  Puritanism  or 
the  indifi'erence  of  the  eighteenth  century  threatened 
the  existence  of  the  old  English  games,  they  found  a 
secure  home  in  the  public  schools.  The  games  were 
not  played  by  all  the  boys;  a  boy  played  or  not,  as  he 
chose.  The  masters  of  the  time  deemed  it  beneath 
their  dignity  to  devote  any  of  their  attention  to  such 


56  STUDENT  LIFE  AND  CUSTOMS. 

unimportant  details  as  schoolboy  sports.  Thus,  at  the 
beginning  of  the  present  century  only  a  few  of  the 
Eton  boys  played  organized  games,  there  existing  at 
that  time  but  three  cricket  clubs  and  one  football  club 
for  the  entire  school.  The  many  were  dependent  on 
bathing  and  boating  in  summer,  and  on  books  appar- 
ently for  the  rest  of  the  year. 

A  rude  form  of  self-government  existed  among  the 
boys.  The  younger  were  expected  to  fag — that  is,  to 
render  slight  personal  services,  such  as  cooking  and 
blacking  shoes  for  the  upper  boys.  In  most  cases  one 
particular  small  boy  was  assigned  to  the  service  of  one 
particular  large  boy.  The  right  of  the  sixth  form  or 
highest  class  to  discipline  the  smaller  boys  was  recog- 
nised, being  in  fact  expressly  enjoined  by  the  statutes 
of  Winchester.  Both  of  these  customs  produced  grave 
abuses;  the  fags  were  bullied  and  tortured  by  a  portion 
of  the  larger  boys,  until  the  public  schools  were  the 
terror  of  all  children  of  a  sensitive  nature.  One  of  the 
forms  of  torture  most  commonly  practised  was  known 
as  giving  the  boys  a  pair  of  tin  gloves.  This  process 
consisted  in  marking  the  fag's  hands  with  red-hot  coals, 
so  that  he  might  be  hardened  to  holding  warm  dishes. 
Toasting  the  calves  of  the  fag's  legs  was  another  much- 
practised  amusement.  At  Eton,  neglect  of  duty  on 
the  part  of  the  fags  was  met  with  brutal  punishment. 
For  a  small  offence,  like  failing  to  close  a  shutter  tight, 
or  leaving  the  seam  of  a  sheet  uppermost,  a  fag  was 
beaten  with  a  brush  on  both  sides  of  the  head.  An  ade- 
quate idea  of  the  atmosphere  of  terrorism  and  brutality 
which  was  the  result  of  such  practices  can  only  be  ob- 
tained from  following  the  career  of  some  sensitive  in- 
dividual, like  Shelley,  who  was  hunted  through  the 
streets  of  Eton  by  the  fag  masters. 

The  discipline  of  the  masters  was  well  calculated  to 
maintain  such  practices  among  the  boys.     It  may  be 


STUDENT  LIFE   IN  EUROPE.  57 

described  as  unintelligently  brutal.  The  rod  was  the 
universal  remedy  for  breaches  of  discipline  or  slowness 
of  apprehension.  On  one  occasion,  at  Winchester,  with 
one  hundred  and  ninety-eight  boys  in  residence,  two 
hundred  and  seventy-nine  cases  were  reported  for  pun- 
ishment at  the  end  of  a  single  day.  At  least  two  of  the 
head  masters  of  Eton  at  the  end  of  the  eighteenth  and 
opening  of  the  nineteenth  century  made  terrorism  their 
avowed  policy.  In  an  emergency  Dr.  Keate  flogged 
more  than  eighty  boys  in  one  night.  Rebellions  of  the 
boys  were  not  uncommon  during  this  period.  During 
Keate's  administration  disorder  was  frequent,  and  there 
is  on  record  an  insurrection  during  which  the  boys  at- 
tempted to  rotten-egg  the  head  master.  At  Harrow  the 
forces  of  disorder  for  a  time  gained  the  upper  hand  and 
brought  the  school  to  the  verge  of  destruction. 

Such  savage  rigour  was  unfavourable  to  morality 
as  well  as  discipline.  Drunkenness  and  other  dissipa- 
tion was  rife  among  the  sixth  form  or  higher  boys. 
Such  a  clique  at  Harrow  organized  a  "  Eed  Xight-Cap 
Club,"  which  took  its  name  from  a  red  cap  emblazoned 
with  a  pot  of  porter,  standing  on  two  crossed  pipes  all  in 
gold  lace,  with  the  exception  of  the  froth,  which  was 
admirably  imitated  in  silver.  The  older  boys  of  Win- 
chester were  taught  to  live  like  men  of  the  world,  which, 
being  interpreted,  means  that  they  played  cards,  fre- 
quented taverns,  indulged  in  fine  clothes,  gave  enter- 
tainments to  the  ladies,  and  indulged  in  dissipation  gen- 
erally. The  younger  Fox  was  said  to  have  demoralized 
Eton  by  the  introduction  of  gaming  and  fashionable 
Continental  life.  The  sixth  form  at  Eugby  amused 
themselves  by  following  the  hounds,  and  otherwise  imi- 
tating the  sporting  life  of  the  surrounding  gentry. 

In  the  domain  of  religious  training  a  sufficient 
number  of  the  old  usages  enjoined  by  the  founder  were 
continued  to  irritate  the  boys  without  having  any  coun- 


58  STUDENT  LIFE  AND  CUSTOMS. 

terbalancing  attempt  at  influence.  Dr.  Moberly,  head 
master  of  Winchester,  writes  of  this  period  as  follows: 
"  The  tone  of  the  young  men  at  the  universities, 
whether  they  came  from  Winchester,  Eton,  Rugby,  or 
Harrow,  or  wherever  else,  was  universally  irreligious. 
A  religious  undergraduate  was  very  rare  and  much 
laughed  at  when  he  appeared,  and,  I  think  I  may  confi- 
dently say,  hardly  to  be  found  among  public-school 
men,  or,  if  this  be  too  strongly  said,  hardly  to  be  found 
except  in  cases  where  private  or  domestic  training  or 
good  dispositions  had  prevailed  over  school  habits  and 
tendencies." 

The  condition  of  affairs  above  described,  which  ex- 
isted in  1820,  represented  rather  the  indifference  of  the 
eighteenth  century  than  the  zeal  and  earnestness  of  the 
nineteenth;  or,  in  other  words,  the  public  schools  were 
fifty  years  behind  the  general  movement  of  civilization. 
Their  deficiencies  were  widely  known  to  the  thinking 
public  and  created  a  sentiment  in  favour  of  reform, 
which  resulted  in  a  number  of  educational  experiments. 
The  most  interesting  of  these  was  the  form  of  gov- 
ernment inaugurated  by  Rowland  Hill  at  Hazlewood 
School.  At  the  beginning  of  the  venture  the  constitu- 
tion consisted  of  a  number  of  resolutions  which  were 
afterward  expanded  into  an  elaborate  and  minutely  de- 
tailed set  of  laws  of  more  than  a  hundred  closely  printed 
pages.  A  judge,  sheriff,  and  keeper  of  records  were 
chosen  by  the  boys,  the  attorney  and  solicitor-general 
by  the  head  master.  Cases  were  tried  by  jury,  six 
boys  being  selected  by  ballot.  If  proved  guilty,  the  boys 
were  punished  by  being  deprived  of  their  holidays. 
The  student  government  was  unusually  successful,  sav- 
ing the  masters  much  trouble.  By  the  ingenious  device 
of  compelling  the  boys  to  fight  in  secret,  the  custom  was 
almost  entirely  done  away  with.  The  scheme  received 
commendation  from  many  high  quarters,  and  was  imi- 


STUDENT   LIFE  IN  EUROPE.  69 

tated  in  foreign  countries.  Its  great  defect  lay  in  the 
fact  that  it  produced  men  prematurely;  its  graduates 
were  precocious  imitations  of  maturity,  or,  in  other 
words,  prigs. 

The  reform  which  came  in  the  public  schools  owed 
little  to  Eowland  Hill,  and  is  known  through  its  con- 
nection with  the  name  of  Thomas  Arnold,  head  master 
of  Rugby  from  1827  to  1843.  The  prevailing  traits  in 
Arnold's  character  were  moral  earnestness  and  vigour  of 
mind.  Himself  a  graduate  of  Winchester  and  Oxford, 
he  possessed  a  first-hand  knowledge  of  public-school  life, 
and  entered  upon  his  head  mastership  with  the  definite 
purpose  in  mind  of  reforming  the  public-school  system 
of  England.  \Miile  Arnold  owes  his  fame  as  much  to 
his  intrinsic  force  of  character  and  theological  liberal- 
ism as  to  his  educational  achievements,  it  can  not  be 
denied  that  in  essential  particulars  the  public  schools 
of  England  have  developed  along  the  lines  which  he 
was  the  first  to  inaugurate.  In  the  field  of  school  life 
his  work  was  adaptive  rather  than  creative;  he  reorgan- 
ized and  systematized  the  institutions  which  had  existed 
previously  in  a  loose  way  at  the  older  public  schools. 
Admiration  for  Arnold  should  not  blind  us  to  the  fact 
that  the  movement  he  began  was  the  next  step  in  the 
march  of  events,  and  that  other  head  masters  arrived  at 
the  same  conclusions  independently.  Nevertheless,  the 
actual  reform  in  the  schools  was  the  result  of  Arnold's 
work  carried  out  by  men  whom  he  had  trained,  and  in- 
terpreted by  such  books  as  Stanley's  Life  of  Arnold 
(1814)  and  Hughes's  Tom  Brown's  School  Days  (1856). 

In  brief,  what  were  the  adaptations  which  Arnold 
made  in  the  student  life  of  the  public  schools?  His 
first  move  at  Rugby  was  to  reorganize  the  house  system, 
which  had  been  allowed  to  fall  into  desuetude,  owing  to 
the  absence  of  the  masters,  who  officiated  as  clergymen 
in    neighbouring   parishes.     He    held    that    each    boy 


60  STUDENT  LIFE  AND  CUSTOMS. 

should  have  a  school  home  and  be  under  the  direct  per- 
sonal supervision  of  one  of  the  masters.  In  many  of 
the  public  schools  this  system  had  prevailed  for  the 
foundation  scholars  (those  living  on  the  bounty  of  the 
founder),  but  not  for  the  mass  of  students.  The  next 
step  was  to  increase  the  power  of  the  sixth  form  (highest 
class),  and  to  make  them  the  governing  authority  of 
the  school.  Here  Arnold  laboured  to  increase  their 
sense  of  responsibility.  He  legalized  the  rule  of  the 
larger  boys  because  he  felt  that  the  strongest  and  oldest 
would  have  their  way  in  any  event.  By  recognising 
their  sway  and  holding  them  responsible,  he  hoped  to 
change  the  character  of  their  rule  from  a  crude  despo- 
tism with  occasional  spells  of  anarchy,  to  a  settled  con- 
stitutional government.  The  sixth  form  were  in  a  posi- 
tion to  be  influenced  by  the  head  master;  the  smaller 
boys  could  only  be  reached  through  their  school-fel- 
lows. As  a  third  and  final  factor,  Arnold  was  the  first 
English  educator  to  realize  the  value  of  athletic  sports 
as  a  safety  valve  for  the  animal  spirits  of  the  boys. 
There  is  an  old  tradition  to  the  effect  that  Arnold  was 
the  first  head  master  in  England  to  witness  a  game  of 
football. 

Such  an  outline  gives  little  of  the  spirit  of  the 
Arnoldian  reform.  The  changes  in  school  government 
were  but  one  step  toward  that  self-reliance  and  manli- 
ness which  Arnold  made  the  keynote  of  school  life. 
It  does  not  fall  within  the  scope  of  this  sketch  to  speak 
of  the  sermons  from  Rugby  Chapel  which  so  powerfully 
affected  the  better  element  among  the  boys,  or  that 
strong  interest  in  each  boy's  personal  welfare  which 
spared  neither  money  nor  time  when  there  was  service 
to  be  rendered.  Yet  the  sermons  and  personal  appeals 
were  the  forces  which  insured  the  favourable  outcome 
of  the  other  reforms.  To  ignore  them  would  be  to  give 
a  false  and  inadequate  idea  of  the  movement. 


STUDENT  LIFE   IN  EUROPE.  61 

The  reforms  at  Eugby  were  made  at  an  opportune 
moment,  the  older  schools  were  becommg  unwieldy 
through  size,  and  a  new  series  of  foundations  was 
about  to  be  begun.  In  a  generation  the  face  of  public- 
school  life  was  changed.  The  renovated  system  of  gov- 
ernment made  away  with  bullying  for  the  most  part,  the 
extraordinary  growth  of  athletics  checked  the  vices  and 
dissipation  of  school  life  and  turned  out  men  of  unusual 
physical  vigour,  the  public  schools  became  the  seats  of 
a  deep  religious  life,  earnestness  and  zeal  succeeded  the 
old  indifference,  and  a  new  spirit  reigned.  Without 
describing  in  detail  this  change,  the  writer  will  pass 
on  to  an  account  of  the  present  conditions  of  public- 
school  life  in  England. 

The  house  in  the  English  public  school,  like  the 
college  in  the  English  university,  is  the  unit  of  organi- 
zation. The  number  and  influence  of  the  houses  vary 
in  the  different  foundations.  At  Winchester  there  are 
nine  houses,  each  containing  about  thirty-five  boys. 
Since  the  house  system  has  been  introduced  the  in- 
struction and  the  care  of  the  boys  have  been  more  inti- 
mate and  personal,  and  therefore  much  better  than 
before.  The  presence  of  the  wives  and  daughters  of 
the  masters  among  the  boys  is  said  to  exert  an  elevating 
and  refining  influence,  putting  the  gawky  boys  at  ease 
in  society  and  helping  to  reform  the  bad  ones.  The 
houses  are  also  of  advantage  in  giving  a  new  boy  a 
steady  circle  of  acquaintances.  The  boys  are  kept 
much  together  by  their  meals  and  early  hour  "  lock- 
up," while  a  series  of  roll  calls  prevents  them  from 
spending  much  time  away  from  schools.  In  conse- 
quence the  fellows  in  each  house  stick  very  close  to- 
gether, which  leads  to  intense  athletic  rivalry  between 
the  different  houses.  Each  house  has  its  debating  so- 
ciety, its  football  and  cricket  teams,  and  at  Eton  its 
house  "  four  "  on  the  river.    The  colleges  at  Eton  and 


62  STUDENT  LIFE  AND  CUSTOMS. 

Winchester  contain  intellectually  the  pick  of  the  school, 
and  are  placed  apart  in  a  house  by  themselves.  Rugby 
and  Harrow,  on  the  other  hand,  scatter  the  best  schol- 
ars among  the  houses. 

Closely  connected  with  the  house  system  is  the  gov- 
ernment of  the  boys  by  the  sixth  form  or  highest  class. 
At  Winchester  this  power  is  lodged  in  the  hands  of 
eighteen  prefects.  Five  of  these  have  special  titles, 
such  as  prefect  of  the  hall,  prefect  of  the  chapel,  and  are 
usually  chosen  from  the  best  scholars.  The  prefect  of 
the  hall  is,  as  it  were,  prime  minister  of  the  boys;  he 
not  only  has  his  own  duties,  but  likewise  supervision 
over  the  other  prefects.  He  quells  disturbances  and 
acts  as  spokesman  of  the  boys  with  the  masters.  The 
prefect  is  empowered  to  inflict  bodily  punishment, 
known  as  "  funding,"  on  the  lower  forms  in  certain 
cases,  the  right  of  appeal  to  the  masters  always  existing. 
The  captain  of  the  house  at  Eton  possesses  similar 
power,  and  when  he  is  a  boy  of  character,  and  has  either 
moral  or  physical  power,  he  may  be  said  to  almost  con- 
trol the  house.  Wlien  there  is  too  much  hubbub  going 
on  in  the  passages,  or  any  breach  of  manners  or  lesser 
morals  is  committed,  he  is  to  a  great  extent  considered 
responsible.  Such  matters  of  discipline  are  usually 
considered  safe  in  his  hands.  The  exercise  of  author- 
ity by  the  sixth  form  is  generally  considered  a  success; 
their  commands  are  less  resented  than  those  of  the  mas- 
ters, and  do  not  provoke  the  instant  opposition  which 
the  latter  sometimes  evoke.  The  boys  themselves  value 
their  privileges  very  highly  and  resist  any  effort  to  cur- 
tail what  they  are  pleased  to  consider  their  rights.  The 
gain  in  self-respect,  tact,  and  common  sense  which  the 
sixth  form  gains  from  the  exercise  of  these  powers  is 
by  no  means  to  be  despised.  Abuses  of  power  some- 
times occur,  and  so  august  an  authority  as  the  public- 
schools  commission  report  that  the  system  should  be 


STUDENT  LIFE  IN  EUROPE.  63 

carefully  watched  to  prevent  abuses.  The  words  of  the 
commission  are  worth  quoting:  "  It  is  evident  that  any 
system  of  this  kind  is  exposed  to  some  risks  and  open  to 
some  objections.  There  are  objections  to  any  delega- 
tion, express  or  tacit,  to  schoolboys,  of  the  authority  to 
inflict  punishment  on  their  fellows.  There  is  a  risk 
lest  it  be  abused  from  a  defect  of  temper  or  judgment; 
lest  it  make  those  intrusted  with  it  imperious  or  tyran- 
nical, or  priggish  and  self-sufficient;  lest  boys  whose 
character  makes  them  illy  qualified  to  govern  others 
should  be  oppressed  and  discouraged  by  a  responsibility 
to  which  they  consider  themselves  unequal;  and  lest  if 
it  fall  into  unfit  hands  it  should  be  an  instrument  of 
positive  evil.  There  is  some  danger  that  the  masters 
should,  more  than  is  just  or  right,  leave  the  discipline  of 
the  school  to  take  care  of  itself  and  the  irregularities, 
the  correction  of  which  forms  a  part  of  their  own  duty, 
to  be  checked — perhaps  ineffectually  and  perhaps  not 
checked  at  all  by  the  senior  boys.  To  guard  against 
these  dangers  effectually  requires,  we  have  no  doubt, 
much  judgment  on  the  part  of  the  head  msater  and  no 
little  care.  .  .  .  We  are  bound,  at  the  same  time,  to 
express  our  belief  that  cases  of  abuse  have  been  excep- 
tional, and  by  proper  precautions  they  may  be  prevented 
from  interfering  seriously  with  the  beneficial  working 
01  the  system.^'  * 

The  same  conservative  tone  pervades  the  report  of 
the  commission  on  the  closely  allied  subject  of  fagging. 
They  conclude  that,  "  On  the  whole  and  with  some  ex- 
ceptions, fagging,  mitigated  by  the  altered  habits  and 
manners  of  the  present  time,  is  not  degrading  to  the 
juniors,  makes  no  exorbitant  demands  on  their  time, 
and  has  no  injurious  effect  on  the  character  of  the  sen- 
iors.    The  relation  between  master  and  fag  is  generally 

*  Public  School  Commission  Report,  vol.  i,  pp.  42,  43  (1864). 


64:  STUDENT  LIFE  AND  CUSTOMS. 

friendly,  and  to  a  certain  extent  one  of  patronage  and 
protection,  and  it  sometimes  gives  rise  to  lasting  in- 
timacies." *  Dr.  Arnold  and  Edward  Thring  have  botli 
defended  fagging  on  the  ground  that  it  protected  the 
small  boy  from  the  miscellaneous  tyranny  of  a  crowd  of 
elders.  To  quote  from  the  latter:  "  A  school  with  no 
legal  form  of  fagging  is  reduced  to  the  level  of  a  savage 
tribe,  and  no  boy  can  consider  himself  safe  as  long  as 
there  is  a  stronger  arm  than  his  own.  But  a  legal  sys- 
tem of  fagging  at  once  dethrones  these  clumsy  tyrants, 
makes  them  servants  instead  of  masters,  carefully 
guards  against  promiscuous  slavery,  and  removes  the 
bitterness  of  injustice  of  such  power  as  remains."  f 

The  present  tendency  is  to  make  fagging  duties 
lighter  from  year  to  year.  At  Eton,  three  forms  of 
fagging  are  in  vogue — mess  fagging,  attention  to  fag 
master's  room,  and  running  errands.  Mess  fagging 
consists  in  making  tea  and  coffee,  toast,  and  occasion- 
ally boiling  eggs  or  cooking,  all  of  which  seldom  occu- 
pies more  than  three  quarters  of  an  hour.  The  fag 
caring  for  his  master's  room  calls  the  occupant  in  the 
morning,  brings  him  warm  water,  fills  his  bath  over- 
night, and  puts  the  room  straight  for  bed.  "  Come- 
here  "  fags  are  bound  to  run  to  any  member  of  the  sixth 
form  on  hearing  these  words.  The  last  one  to  arrive  is 
customarily  despatched  on  the  errand. J  A  few  simple 
duties  like  running  errands,  cooking,  and  washing  bot- 
tles, cover  the  entire  functions  of  the  fag  at  "Winches- 
ter.* In  other  schools  the  practice  has  almost  be- 
come a  thing  of  the  past. 

*  Public  School  Commission  Report,  vol.  i,  p.  44  (1864). 

f  Thring,  Edward.  Education  on  School,  p.  266.  Arnold, 
Thomas.  On  the  Discipline  of  Public  Schools,  reprinted  in  J.  J. 
Findlay's  Arnold  of  Rugby,  p.  233. 

X  Pascoe.     Everyday  Life  in  the  English  Public  Schools,  p.  23. 

=**  Corbin,  John.     Schoolboy  Life  in  England,  p.  38. 


STUDENT  LIFE  IN  EUROPE.  65 

To  the  English  schoolboy  athletics  forms  the  most 
important  element  of  the  public-school  organization, 
for  in  England  the  games  have  a  recognised  status  with 
the  masters.  Many  of  the  assistant  masters  are  chosen 
for  their  prowess  in  athletics.  A  large  portion  of  the 
school  expenditure  goes  to  games,  and  participation  in 
them  is  compulsory  to  all  those  not  physically  disquali- 
fied. In  the  reminiscences  of  "  old  boys  ^'  cricket  scores 
and  close  games  of  football  seem  to  overtop  all  other 
sides  of  school  life.  One  writer  expresses  the  attitude 
of  nine  tenths  of  the  public-school  men  when  he  says: 
"  K'o  thinking  man  will  blame  us  for  idolizing  the  ath- 
lete. The  cricketer  in  his  flannels  was  our  hero  and 
not  the  student  immersed  in  his  books.  The  fortune 
of  our  ancient  school  will  stand  as  long  as  we  can  pro- 
duce not  only  scholars  but  cricketers."  * 

Cricket,  football,  fives,  and  boating  are  the  favour- 
ite forms  of  contest,  although  boating  is  now  prac- 
tically confined  to  Eton.  Eugby  and  Shrewsbury  are 
noted  for  their  football,  Harrow  and  Charterhouse  for 
their  cricket.  Without  attempting  to  present  the  de- 
tails relating  to  the  management  of  the  games,  or  the 
struggles  for  supremacy  between  the  different  houses 
and  schools,  we  will  turn  to  the  educational  aspects  of 
public-school  athletics.  What  has  the  universal  par- 
ticipation in  games  done  for  the  English  boy  of  the 
upper  classes?  Primarily,  it  has  equipped  him  with  a 
strong  physique  and  excellent  health.  Most  foreign- 
ers visiting  English  schools  of  this  grade  are  struck 
with  the  vigorous  and  manly  appearance  of  the 
students.  This  result  is  so  obvious  and  generally  ad- 
mitted that  discussion  would  be  superfluous,  although, 
for  the  benefit  of  the  American  reader,  it  may  be 
said  in  passing  that  athletic  contests  in  England  are 

*  Minchin,  J.  G.  C.     Old  Harrow  Days,  p.  150. 
5 


ee  STUDENT  LIFE  AND  CUSTOMS. 

less  fierce  and  the  training  much  less  severe  than  in 
America.* 

The  spread  of  athletics  and  the  better  organization 
of  games  have  enlisted  the  sympathies  of  the  boys  on 
the  side  of  law.  To  quote  from  Thring  again:  "  The 
internal  order  and  discipline  of  every  great  school  ought 
to  revolve  around  the  central  principle  of  the  perfect 
lawfulness  of  every  out-of-door  sport  or  amusement."  f 
To  give  the  boys  something  to  lose,  that  is  the  starting 
point  in  any  system  of  student  self-government.  The 
organization  of  games  puts  a  powerful  weapon  of  con- 
trol in  the  hands  of  the  authorities.  In  another  way 
athletics  make  for  order  by  sweeping  along  all  kinds  of 
different  temperaments  and  personal  peculiarities  on 
one  tide  of  social  interest. 

Another  valuable  function  of  athletics  in  a  board- 
ing school  is  to  fill  the  mind  of  the  boy  to  the  exclu- 
sion of  more  dangerous  subjects.  "  Athletics  supply 
an  object  of  thought  and  conversation  that  is  perfectly 
legitimate,  perfectly  wholesome,  and  within  limits  not 
unprofitable.  Boys  at  school  pass  through  a  period  of 
life  during  which  bodies  and  minds  are  rapidly  growing, 
interests  are  being  developed,  and  prospects  of  new 
pleasures  and  activities  are  opening  out.  And  it  is 
much  that  during  such  a  period,  when  dangers  and  per- 
versions of  energy  are  nigh  at  hand,  there  should  be 
one  master  interest,  healthy  and  absorbing,  to  dominate 
speech  and  thought.'^  X  Games  promote  good  feeling 
between  masters  and  boys  by  giving  them  a  common 
topic  of  conversation  of  a  neutral  nature,  unconnected 

*  For  a  discussion  of  hygienic  results  of  public-school  games, 
the  reader  is  referred  to  C,  C.  Cotterill's  Suggested  Reforms  in 
the  Public  Schools,  chaps,  ii  and  viii. 

f  Thring,  E.     Education  and  School,  p.  258. 

X  Lionel  Ford.  Public  School  Athletics,  in  Cookson's  Essays 
on  Secondary  Education,  p.  286. 


S^rUDJ^-^T  LIFE  IX  EU 

T\'itli  school  studie^  ^^  discipline.  I 
are  themselves  O-  .  athletes,  the  two 
and  fraternize  on  the  playing  fields. 

To  a  certain  e>:tent  athletics  mak 
work  for  one's  te;am  rather  than  on 
step  in  social  education.     The  habitit 
the  hard  discipline  of  training  are 
the  development  of  such  qualities  o 
temper  and  self-irepression.     The  s( 
ity  which  comes  j.Tom  captaining  a  t( 
one's  house  or  school  is  in  itself  an 
a  man  a  sense  of-  his  own  real  value 
and  makes  him   capable  of  dealing 
either  timidity  on  the  one  hand  or  p 
other.     While  i  his  value  of  athletic 
sometimes  oven^stimated,  it  should  be 
looked.* 

The  Engii&h  public  have  fullr  . 
which  out-of-c^oor  games  have  piay- 
public-school  'Uan.     Xow  the  greate.^ 
come  from  th(;  other  side,  from  exces , 
unreasonable   devotion  to  athletics, 
the  heavy  in^^estments  of  capital  in  . 
of  the  time  f^iven  to  sports  far  beyor 
hygiene,  the  greatest  obstacle  to  the  ■ 
the  public  s-chools  has  been  the  grc 
athleticism.     The  boys  leave   schoo' 
knowledge  than  at  any  previous  pei 
cases  thev  study  perfunctorily;  they  " 
est  in  f   ngs  intellectual,  whether  in 
studies  or  outside  hobbies.     To  eve 
seventeen  or  eighteen  years  of  age,  tl 
a  public  scho9j^' >,_^:    play  games;  the 

*  For  a  full  discussion  of  this  factor 
Psychological,  Pedagogical,  and  Religio:) 
Games,  Pedagogical  Seminary,  March,  189( 


^T  LIFE  AND  P^rgTO^IS. 

batting,  averages?  ^nd  the  literaturo 
rare  mental  gifts,  or  strong  charac- 
il  in  with  the  athlc^tic  mania,  are  dis- 
ipanions  and  isohited,  which  reacts 
.  them.  In  short.,  athletics,  instead 
)ordinate  but  important  place  in  the 
has  usurped  the  pc)sition  of  first  im- 
i  intellectual  intercests  into  the  back- 

g   its   supremacy,    athletics   has   by 

>oly  of  attention.     Societies  and  or- 

,ny  purposes  are  foi^ind  in  the  public 

)table  of  which  are  debating  societies, 

societies,   natural   history   societies, 

al  societies,  and  religious  organiza- 

tie  political  instincts   of  their  race, 

ishmen  concentrate   their   strongest 

g  affairs  of  state.    Bes:;des  the  '*  Pop," 

!ral  school  society,  eac^^h  house  has  a 

:s  own,  which  is  describ  ed  as  a  curious 

tution.    "  It  usually  consists  of  about 

'not,  as  a  rule,  elected  for  any  sup- 

.ratory),  of  whom  ten  are  Conserva- 

erals.    Many  varieties  of  opinion  are 

Jingo  and  the  Radical,  the  scornful 

of  statistics.     On  the   whole,  these 

are  excellent  institutions,  awakening 

iterest  in  public  matters  and  public 

':  not  productive  of  vjloquerce.     The 

erally  regarded  with  great    interest. 

he  debating  society,  each  house  has  a 

it  Eton  these  societies  are  conducted 

ivithout  intei'ference  on  the  part  of 

eryday  Life  in  the  English  Public  Schools, 


STUDENT  LIFE  IN  EUROPE.  69 

the  masters,  while  at  Winchester  the  head  master  is 
always  president  of  the  Natural  History  and  Shake- 
speare Societies. 

The  influence  and  character  of  these  kinds  of  clubs 
vary  in  different  schools.  For  instance,  the  debating 
clubs  are  more  prominent  at  Eton  than  at  Harrow. 
They  play  a  more  important  part  in  school  life  than  sim- 
ilar organizations  in  America,  with  the  possible  excep- 
tions of  preparatory-school  fraternities  and  debating 
societies  in  some  of  the  Western  and  Southern  acad- 
emies. In  England  these  clubs  have  a  particular  value 
in  keeping  alive  a  variety  of  interests  amid  the  flood 
of  athleticism.*  A  description  of  the  English  public 
schools  which  failed  to  take  account  of  their  individual- 
ity and  traditions  would  be  inadequate.  In  this  respect 
the  public  schools  may  be  compared  with  American  col- 
leges. As  one  speaks  of  the  Harvard,  Yale,  or  Prince- 
ton type,  so  English  writers  refer  to  Etonian,  Har- 
rowian,  or  Eugbian  character.  A  recent  writer  has 
characterized  the  output  of  the  above  schools  in  a  man- 
ner so  admirable  that  it  seems  worthy  to  be  quoted  here : 
''  An  Etonian  is  readily  distinguished  by  the  polish  of 
his  manner  from  which  the  crudities  of  boyhood  have 
prematurely  disappeared.  His  opinions  show  culture, 
but  are  apt  to  be  narrow,  and  are  seldom  based  on  very 
solid  ground.  The  Harrowian  is  more  bluff  and  vigor- 
ous, perhaps  more  brutal  than  the  Etonian.  His  man- 
ners lack  grace,  but  his  views  are  broader  and  his  mind 
more  virile.  The  Eugbian  is  a  very  distinct  and  not 
very  agreeable  type.     He  is  Tom  Brown  pushed  to  a 

*  Worthy  of  more  than  a  passing  notice  are  the  missions 
established  by  the  public  schools  in  the  poorer  parts  of  London 
and  other  destitute  localities.  Eighteen  of  the  public  schools 
are  now  thus  represented.  Masters  say  that  the  tone  of  their 
schools  has  improved  since  the  boys  have  by  this  means  been 
taught  to  sympathize  with  the  sufferings  of  the  poor. 


YO  STUDENT  LIFE  AND  CUSTOMS. 

morbid  excess,  and  is  marked  by  an  arrogant  contempt 
for  the  feelings  and  opinions  of  others,  an  unpleasant 
roughness  of  manner,  and  a  habit  of  contradiction  that 
borders  on  the  insolent."  * 

The  great  estimation  in  which  the  public  schools 
are  held,  their  long  traditions  and  list  of  famous  gradu- 
ates, appeal  to  the  imagination  and  tend  to  fasten  a 
pride  and  esprit  du  corps  which  has  no  small  agency  in 
making  self-government  a  success.  The  preachers  of 
school  sermons — men  like  Arnold  and  Farrar — fre- 
quently employ  this  motif  with  great  effect.  The  follow- 
ing quotation  from  a  sermon  by  Canon  Farrar  will  give 
some  idea  of  the  strength  of  this  feeling.  It  also  testi- 
fies to  the  manly  and  independent  character  of  the  men 
whom  public-school  life  produces:  "  This  school  has 
sent  forth  poets  of  undying  memory,  great  divines, 
learned  scholars,  governors  who  ruled  millions  of  new 
subjects  in  distant  provinces,  eloquent  orators  who  have 
held  listening  senates  breathless  at  their  voice,  states- 
men who  have  been  the  foremost  to  guide  the  destiny 
of  civilized  nations,  mighty  warriors  who  have  rolled 
the  tempestuous  thunders  of  victory  over  land  and  sea. 
It  is  a  power  in  English  education  forever.  What  shall 
be  the  fate  of  Harrow,  my  brothers,  rests  in  your  hands; 
a  single  generation  may  decide  it.  Our  own  hold  on 
the  school  may  be  short;  the  average  time  of  a  boy's 
stay  here  is  less  than  five  years,  but  the  good  or  harm 
he  may  do  in  those  few  years  is  simply  incalculable.  .  .  . 
Harrow  boys  of  this  generation,  answer  me — for  I  an- 
swer not  the  question  for  you  either  way — has  the  hon- 
our of  Harrow  risen  or  fallen  in  your  hands?  What  has 
your  work  been?  Have  you  strengthened  a  good  tradi- 
tion or  added  virulence  to  an  evil?     Supposing  any  one 

*  Norman  Pearson,  in  Lippincott's  Magazine,  vol.  xxxiii, 
p.  611. 


STUDENT  LIFE  IN  EUROPE.  71 

of  you  were  the  last  scion  of  an  ancient  and  noble  house, 
what  would  your  feelings  be  if  you  brought  on  that  hon- 
ourable lineage  a  lasting,  an  irreparable  disgrace?  Yet 
the  blot  on  the  white  scutcheon,  on  an  illustrious  line, 
is  as  nothing  to  any  shame  or  disgrace  brought  through 
your  weakness  or  wickedness  upon  the  reputation  of  a 
noble  school — a  school  the  name  of  which,  if  you  but 
do  your  duty,  must  and  will  shed  more  honour  on  the 
majority  of  you  than  you  will  ever  shed  on  it.  A  pride 
in  Harrow,  if  it  be  a  manly  pride,  is  not  only  pardon- 
able but  right,  not  only  excusable  but  desirable.  This 
school  and  not  another  claims  your  loyal  allegiance;  to 
this  school  and  not  another  is  your  chivalrous  devotion 
due.  The  public  schools  are  among  our  worthiest  in- 
stitutions." * 

In  estimating  the  worth  of  student  life  in  the  public 
schools,  one  can  justly  say  with  Eomanes  that,  if  the 
Germans  have  thus  far  excelled  in  perfecting  the  educa- 
tion of  work,  the  English  have  been  equally  pre-emi- 
nent in  developing  the  education  of  play.  English  su- 
periority in  this  field  has  been  acknowledged  by  recent 
French  and  German  writers  of  repute,  and  athletic 
movements  inaugurated  in  both  countries,  based  largely 
on  English  precedent.  The  secondary  schools  of 
America  have  a  student  life  of  their  own  which  is  large- 
ly an  imitation  of  college  ways  and  clubs.  ISTo  wide- 
spread influence  of  English  societies  and  games  has 
taken  place,  although  some  few  institutions,  like  Law- 
renceville,  Groton,  and  St.  Paul's,  have  adopted  some 
one  feature  of  the  English  system.  American  observ- 
ers, like  President  Sharpless,  have  spoken  in  high  terms 
of  the  training  afforded  by  the  public  schools.  One 
American  writer,  Mr.  John  Corbin,  has  published  a 

*  Frederic  W.  Farrar,  in  the  Fall  of  Man  and  other  Sermons, 
p.  128. 


"12  STUDENT  LIFE  AND   CUSTOMS. 

book  in  which  the  public  schools  are  held  up  as  models 
to  his  countrymen.  He  recognises  that  many  of  their 
most  striking  features,  like  fagging  and  the  monitorial 
system,  would  not  be  tolerated  in  the  great  majority  of 
American  schools.  The  house  system  and  compulsory 
athletics  remain.  These  are  both  along  the  line  of  ad- 
vance in  American  boarding  schools,  and,  but  for  finan- 
cial obstacles,  would  have  been  established.  The  great 
lesson  which  American  education  has  to  learn  from 
England  does  not  consist  in  the  imitation  of  this  or 
that  particular  institution,  but  in  the  realization  that, 
in  the  hands  of  capable  teachers,  the  schools  may  be- 
come an  important  element  in  character  building  and 
social  education.  English  experience  has  provided  us 
with  a  standard  by  which  American  student  life  can  be 
measured.     This  is  no  small  service. 

§  5.  Student  Life  in  Scotch  Universities. 

Bibliography. — The  Appendix  to  Volume  II  of  Alexander 
Grant's  The  Story  of  the  University  of  Edinburgh  contains  an 
account  of  student  organizations  there.  Student  Life  at  Edin- 
burgh University,  by  Norman  Eraser,  describes  the  academic 
career  of  a  student  of  pietistic  tendencies.  Kait's  Aberdeen  is 
useful  for  occasional  notices.  Two  articles  by  John  Nichol  (Fort- 
nightly Review,  vol.  xl,  p.  639)  and  J.  Leys  (National  Review, 
vol.  viii,  533)  discuss  the  general  tone  of  Scotch  student  life  and 
its  relation  to  education.  Chambers's  Journal  (vol.  Ixxi,  p.  593) 
sums  up  the  recent  movements  among  Scottish  students.  David 
Masson,  the  biographer  of  Milton,  has  written  an  interesting 
reminiscent  article  in  Macmillan's  Magazine,  vol.  ii,  p.  123.  For 
additional  references,  see  Bibliography. 

In  1850  the  Scotch  universities  presented  contrasts 
to  Oxford  and  Cambridge  in  their  constitution,  their 
studies,  in  the  constituency  to  which  they  appealed,  and 
in  the  spirit  which  animated  them.  The  English  uni- 
versities were  the  most  conservative  in  Europe;  the  cul- 


STUDENT  LIFE  IN  EUROPE.  73 

ture  of  a  gentleman  rather  than  professional  efficiency 
was  their  aim.  They  were  the  exclusive  possession  of 
the  upper  classes,  attracting  to  their  halls  a  smaller 
proportion  of  the  population  than  the  universities  of 
any  other  European  country.  The  four  universities  of 
Scotland,  on  the  other  hand,  were  relatively  the  most 
popular  institutions  of  higher  learning  in  Europe;  their 
strongest  departments  were  professional,  and  their 
methods  represented  the  strongest  utilitarian  tend- 
encies. They  were  called  the  great  public  schools  for  a 
majority  of  the  middle  classes  of  the  country,  and  it  was 
said  that  nine  tenths  of  the  most  successful  Scotchmen 
who  worked  in  any  degree  with  their  heads  had  passed 
at  least  a  session  or  two  at  one  or  other  of  the  universi- 
ties. From  their  poverty,  and  the  lack  of  regular  prepa- 
ration on  the  part  of  their  students,  they  were  not  able 
to  compete  with  Germany  in  specialty  and  thorough- 
ness, or  with  Oxford  and  Cambridge  in  regard  to  the 
scholarly  finish  of  the  work  done. 

Poverty  has  always  been  the  lot  of  the  great  major- 
ity of  Scottish  students.  Legends  float  do^vTi  from  by- 
gone generations  of  students  who  walked  from  a  distant 
region  of  the  country  barefoot  in  order  to  save  their 
only  pair  of  shoes,  and  with  all  their  wardrobe  contained 
in  a  small  knapsack  which  they  carried  on  their  backs. 
In  term  time  they  existed  on  hard  cheese,  which  they 
had  brought  from  home,  and  a  little  oatmeal.  At  the 
University  of  Edinburgh  there  were  men  who  worked 
at  bookbinding  or  printing,  made  pills  and  potions  in 
druggists'  shops,  acted  as  copying  clerks  in  lawyers' 
offices,  or  even  engaged  actively  in  the  carpenter  trade 
while  carrying  on  studies  at  the  university.  In  fact, 
the  greater  part  of  the  student  body  were  recruited  from 
the  labouring  and  lower  and  middle  classes.  Such 
men  could  not  but  be  noted  for  the  strenuousness  of 
their  labours,  the  eagerness  of  their  efforts,  and  the 


74:  STUDENT  LIFE  AND  CUSTOMS. 

keenness  of  competition,  which,  together  with  the  unhy- 
gienic conditions  of  their  work,  often  resulted  in  trage- 
dies. Some  necessarily  fell  back  disheartened,  and 
perhaps  soured  with  disappointment;  a  large  number 
are  permanently  weakened  in  health,  and  many  never 
emerge  from  the  conflict.  To  quote  the  eloquent  words 
of  a  Scottish  writer,  "  There  is  not  a  churchyard  on 
Scottish  soil  which  is  not  the  resting  place  of  some 
bright-eyed  youth  who  paid  for  his  ambition  with  his 
life,  who  has  been  vanquished  in  the  fight,  and  crept 
wearily  home  to  die.^^  (J.  Leys,  in  National  Eeview.) 
Such  an  atmosphere  of  struggle  and  intensity  was 
unfavourable  to  the  development  of  healthy  student  life. 
There  could  be  none  of  that  exuberance  of  spirit  which 
accompanies  all  the  manifestations  of  the  play  instinct. 
The  lack  of  collegiate  life,  except  at  St.  Andrew^s,  ac- 
centuated the  evil.  The  Scotch  students  were  not  a 
body  of  young  men  associated  together  for  any  object, 
but  a  number  of  isolated  youths,  each  living  his  own 
life  in  his  own  way,  scattered  up  and  down  a  great 
city,  and  brought  together  two  or  three  hours  a  day  for 
the  purpose  of  instruction.  Two  or  three  youths  of 
similar  tastes  might  form  a  group  which  resulted  in 
lifelong  friendships;  but  the  fact  that  the  students  had 
nothing  in  common  but  their  studies  prevented  any 
fellowship  on  a  large  scale.  The  Puritanical  distrust 
of  the  world,  fostered  by  Scotch  theology,  tended  to 
degrade  student  life  in  the  public  estimation,  or,  to  be 
more  accurate,  prevented  the  need  of  a  student  life  from 
being  felt.  There  was  nothing  in  the  life  of  a  majority 
of  Scottish  students  to  answer  to  the  influences  which 
at  Eton  and  Oxford  moulded  the  character  and  manners 
of  an  Englishman,  and  in  many  quarters  there  was  op- 
position to  the  introduction  of  any  such  instrumen- 
talities. Competent  judges  estimated  that  there  was 
less  student  life  in  the  Scottish  universities  than  in  the 


STUDENT   LIFE  IN  EUROPE.  75 

higher  institutions  of  either  England,  Germany,  or 
America. 

Critics  of  Scottish  education  realized  the  need  and 
pointed  out  the  fact  that  the  national  character  was 
weak  in  the  very  points  which  an  active  student  life 
would  tend  to  remedy.  The  Scotch  type  abounds  in 
fire  and  strength,  has  almost  an  infinite  capacity  to 
work,  and  an  almost  superhuman  desire  to  succeed  and 
command.  The  Scotchman's  hunger  to  push  and  get 
the  better  are  often  liable  to  culminate  in  displays  of 
envy,  hatred,  and  uncharitableness.  The  master  de- 
fects of  his  mind  are  a  want  of  grace,  flexibility,  and 
repose,  and  the  magnanimous  qualities  which  make  the 
gentleman  at  ease.  It  was  a  matter  of  regret  to  many 
that  the  university  system  encouraged  mere  activity  and 
emulation,  and  did  so  little  to  refine,  moderate,  and  hu- 
manize those  who  came  under  its  influences. 

In  the  northern  universities  of  this  period  muscular 
training  was  neglected.  Cricket  and  boating  clubs  did 
not  exist,  curling  and  golf  were  confined  to  a  com- 
paratively small  portion  of  the  country.  Walking  for 
walking's  sake  led  to  nothing,  and  obviously  served 
no  practical  purposes.  The  picturesque  country  in 
the  neighbourhood  of  the  universities,  abounding 
in  romantic  associations,  had  no  charms  for  the  hard- 
working students.  Football  had  been  left  behind  at 
the  grammar  school  with  marbles  and  other  childish 
things. 

The  only  physical  recreation  which  the  students  per- 
mitted themselves  were  town  and  gown  rows  and  rec- 
torial elections.  The  snow  riots  in  Edinburgh  between 
the  students  and  the  lower  class  of  the  citizens  first 
began  to  be  noteworthy  in  1831,  the  date  of  the  great 
riot,  when  the  police,  instead  of  maintaining  order, 
joined  the  rabble  against  the  undergraduates.  Formi- 
dable snow  riots  took  place  again  in  1848  and  1854:, 


T6  STUDENT  LIFE  AND  CUSTOMS. 

while  the  last  affair  of  importance  occurred  as  recently 
as  1861.  The  rectorial  election  takes  place  every  three 
years,  and  at  one  time  was  the  excuse  for  a  carnival  of 
misrule.  The  contest  was  fought  out  along  purely 
party  lines,  and  in  the  campaign,  speeches  were  not 
the  only  weapons  employed.  For  a  week  before  the 
election  the  quadrangle  was  turned  into  a  battle  ground 
by  the  opposing  parties,  who  were  armed  with  flour  of 
various  colours,  pea-shooters,  dried  flatfish,  and  similar 
weapons.  Both  town  and  gown  rows  and  rectorial  elec- 
tions, valuable  as  they  were  in  generating  bonds  of 
union  between  the  students,  were  too  occasional  in 
character  to  materially  alter  the  state  of  isolation  before 
described. 

The  important  social  institution  for  the  minority  of 
the  students  were  the  debating  societies.  At  Edinburgh 
the  first  of  these  organizations  to  be  founded  was  the 
famous  Speculative  Society  in  1764,  which  soon  as- 
sumed and  steadily  maintained  a  brilliant  reputation  as 
a  school  of  debate  for  future  lawyers,  divines,  and  states- 
men. This  society  possessed  its  own  hall  and  library. 
In  the  most  brilliant  period  of  its  existence  it  num- 
bered among  its  members  Walter  Scott,  Lord  Jeffreys, 
and  Henry  Brougham.  The  Theological  Society  was 
founded  in  1776,  the  Royal  Medical  Society  in  1778, 
and  the  Dialectic  Society  in  1787.  Later  additions  to 
the  group  were  the  Scots  Law  Society  in  1815,  the 
Diagnostic  Society  in  1816,  and  the  Philomathic  So- 
ciety in  1858.  The  circle  of  questions  discussed  in 
these  societies  was  much  wider  than  in  English  and 
American  debating  clubs.  Political  issues  have  not 
assumed  such  importance,  and  more  attention  has  been 
given  to  ethical  and  psychological  problems.  Earnest- 
ness and  fire,  often  to  the  extent  of  bitter  personalities, 
marked  the  discussions  of  the  debating  society  during 
this  period.     The  debate  often  became  a  fierce  give- 


STUDENT  LIFE  IN  EUROPE.  Y7 

and-take  fight,  in  which  the  president's  office  was  no 
sinecure. 

Scotch  writers  have  rated  high  the  social  influence 
of  these  early  debating  clubs.  Says  Professor  Masson 
(Macmillan's  Magazine,  vol.  xi):  Nowhere  in  the 
university  was  the  crossing  of  influences  from  the  differ- 
ent faculties  and  professors,  and  the  importations  at  the 
same  time  of  independent  influences,  more  observable 
than  in  the  debating  societies.  The  very  great  impor- 
tance of  debating  societies  as  the  nonofficial  part  of  the 
apparatus  of  the  university  deserves  to  be  noted.  .  .  . 
To  this  day  I  have  known  nothing  of  the  sort  better  on 
the  whole,  and  it  remains  a  question  to  me  whether  the 
excitement  and  mutual  invigoration  afforded  by  them 
were  not  that  agency  in  the  university  life  of  Edinburgh 
which  gave  zest  and  unity  to  the  rest." 

Student  journalism  at  the  University  of  Edinburgh 
began  in  1823.  The  University  Journal  and  Critical 
Review,  instituted  at  this  time,  was  a  solid  little  pro- 
duction, full  of  justly  critical  remarks  on  the  various 
deficiencies  of  the  constitution.  It  continued  through 
twelve  monthly  numbers.  Another  magazine  of  the 
same  scope  was  published  in  1831.  Of  greater  interest 
to  the  historian  are  the  humorous  sheets  which  enliv- 
ened university  circles  at  various  intervals.  In  182-1 
appeared  the  Lapsus  Linguae  or  College  Tatler,  a  bi- 
weekly brochure  of  four  pages,  which  contained  much 
ephemeral  cleverness  and  aired  many  university  griev- 
ances. Its  personalities  were  so  pointed  and  its  carica- 
tures so  coarse  that  it  was  threatened  with  actions  for 
libel.  In  the  year  1832  no  less  than  three  of  these 
comic  journals — the  Nimmo  or  Almas  Tawse,  the  Anti- 
N'immo,  and  the  University  John  the  Giant  Killer — ^be- 
gan publication.  The  most  famous  of  these  light  pub- 
lications was  the  Magna  (1834),  a  weekly  sheet.  Twelve 
numbers  appeared.     The   editorial  board  formed  the 


78  STUDENT  LIFE  AND  CUSTOMS. 

Magna  Club,  which  afterward  gave  itself  the  formidable 
name  Oineromathic.  It  is  worth  noting  that  this  club 
developed  many  of  the  characteristics  of  an  Ameri- 
can fraternity.  The  members  wore  a  red  ribbon  across 
the  breast,  terminating  in  a  silver  triangle  which  bore 
the  Greek  words  OINO^  EPOS  MAOH^U.  Many  men 
who  afterward  became  famous  joined  the  order.  The 
club  aimed  to  promote  truth,  philanthropy,  and  good 
fellowship.  It  was  afterward  called  the  Universal 
Brotherhood  of  the  Friends  of  Truth. 

During  the  last  fifty  years  (1850-1900)  forces  have 
been  at  work  which  have  essentially  modified  the  char- 
acter of  Scottish  student  life.  The  general  athletic 
movement  of  Great  Britain  and  the  influence  of  the 
English  universities  have  been  two  powerful  factors  in 
producing  the  change.  To-day  athletics  play  a  large 
and  influential  part  in  the  life  of  the  Scottish  student, 
although  as  a  rule  less  time  and  money  are  spent  on 
amusements  than  is  the  case  with  their  brethren  of  the 
south.  The  universities  take  part  in  all  the  games  of 
the  country  and  maintain  a  keen  rivalry  among  them- 
selves. Their  contests,  however,  are  by  no  means  as 
famous  as  those  between  Oxford  and  Cambridge.  An 
athlete  of  parts  is  sure  to  win  for  himself  a  favourable 
share  of  attention  at  any  Scottish  university.  The 
students  of  the  University  of  Edinburgh  maintain  the 
Eifle  Company's  Shooting  Club,  a  boat  club,  a  golf  club, 
and  a  general  athletic  club  for  gymnastics,  football,  ten- 
nis, and  cycling. 

More  direct  efforts  to  promote  sociability  have  taken 
two  forms.  In  1876  the  Students'  Club  was  founded 
at  Edinburgh  for  the  purpose  of  creating  a  common  life 
which  was  lacking  under  the  system  of  separate  lodg- 
ings. This  club  rents  a  building  of  its  own,  and  is  a 
club  in  the  usual  sense  of  the  term.  It  is  conducted  on 
a  simple  and  frugal  plan,  merely  supplying  a  place  for 


'STUDENT  LIFE  IN  EUROPE.  79 

common  meals  and  for  reading  newspapers  and  periodi- 
cals. University  Hall,  established  largely  through  the 
energy  of  Patrick  Geddes,  aims  to  create  the  common 
life  of  an  English  college,  and  is  conducted  on  co- 
operative principles.  The  Hall  consists  of  five  or  six 
boarding  houses,  clustered  in  the  most  historic  and  pic- 
turesque portion  of  the  old  town.  The  idea  of  common 
life  takes  root  slowly  among  the  Scotch,  and  University 
Hall  even  now  contains  less  than  one  hundred  students. 

A  new  departure  of  great  interest  to  an  American 
observer  is  the  Eepresentative  Councils  which  have 
been  created  in  the  Scotch  universities  within  the  last 
few  years.  The  Representative  Council  is  selected  by 
the  whole  body  of  the  students  annually,  and  is  intended 
as  a  means  of  communication  between  its  constituency 
and  the  governing  body  of  the  university.  The  mem- 
bers are  afforded  an  opportunity  to  exercise  themselves 
in  debate  and  to  play  at  the  work  which  they  may  be 
called  upon  to  do  later.  The  Representative  Councils 
have  not  effected  that  change  in  academic  life  which 
was  at  first  hoped  from  them. 

English  influence  has  been  nowhere  stronger  than 
in  the  remodelling  of  the  debating  societies  which  now 
tend  to  combine  the  role  of  the  club  with  their  former 
functions.  All  the  old  societies  of  Edinburgh  still  exist, 
and  are  graded  in  order  of  importance  by  age.  The 
Speculative  has  an  entrance  fee  of  five  guineas,  which 
limits  its  membership  to  young  advocates;  the  Dialec- 
tic and  Diagnostic  are  the  general  debating  societies 
for  senior  students,  and  the  Philomathic  is  given  over 
to  freshmen.  The  literary  and  debating  societies  asso- 
ciate themselves  together  in  the  form  of  a  federation. 
The  office  of  president  of  the  associated  societies  is 
an  honorary  one  and  held  by  some  distinguished  man, 
who  usually  delivers  an  address.  One  of  the  happi- 
est speeches  of  the  Earl  of  Rosebery  was  delivered  in 


80  STUDENT  LIFE  AND  CUSTOMS. 

this  capacity.  The  Union  or  associated  debates  are 
open  to  all  members  of  the  university,  and  are  justly 
popular  affairs;  even  a  professor  in  evening  dress  occa- 
sionally condescends  to  defend  the  constitution  of  the 
country  against  the  young  lions  of  radicalism. 

The  tendency  to  multiply  organizations,  so  notice- 
able in  England  and  America,  is  not  absent  from  Scot- 
land. In  addition  to  the  societies  we  have  described, 
the  Scottish  universities  contain  professional,  musical, 
and  philanthropic  organizations.  The  list  of  profes- 
sional societies  at  Edinburgh  is  much  briefer  than  a 
similar  list  at  Harvard  or  Pennsylvania.  To  the  Medi- 
cal, Scots  Law,  and  Philosophical  Societies,  dating  from 
an  earlier  period,  Edinburgh  has  more  recently  added 
an  Agricultural  Discussion  Society,  a  Chemical  Society, 
and  a  Natural  History  Society.  The  marked  ethical 
character  of  Scottish  culture  is  reflected  in  the  strength 
of  the  moral  and  religious  associations.  There  are  two 
Christian  Associations  in  Edinburgh,  a  Missionary  As- 
sociation, and  a  Total  Abstinence  Society. 

Many  of  the  recent  tendencies  in  Scotch  student  life 
seem  to  parallel  those  in  the  United  States;  the  late 
growth  of  athletics,  the  general  interest  in  debating,  the 
attention  to  student  self-government — all  these  point  to 
a  similarity  of  problems.  As  far  as  can  be  ascertained, 
the  growth  of  these  problems  in  each  country  has  been 
quite  independent  of  the  other.  It  is  to  be  hoped,  how- 
ever, that  the  results  of  Scotch  student  experience  will 
before  long  be  placed  before  the  American  reader  much 
more  in  detail. 


CHAPTER    II. 

AMEEICAX    STUDEXT    LIFE    IX    COLOXIAL    COLLEGES. 

Previous  to  the  American  Eevoliition,  nine  colleges 
of  high  learning  were  founded  in  the  English  colo- 
nies of  North  America.  Of  these,  only  three — Harvard, 
William  and  Mary,  and  Yale — dated  their  existence 
from  a  period  previous  to  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth 
century;  the  six  late  foundations — Dartmouth,  Brown, 
Kings  (now  Columbia),  Eutgers,  Pennsylvania,  and 
Princeton — with  the  exception  of  the  last  of  the  series, 
had  no  opportunity  to  develop  an  independent  student 
life.  Our  study  must  in  consequence  be  limited  to  the 
records  of  three  or  four  colleges,  which  records  have 
been  by  no  means  thoroughly  explored  and  exploited  by 
the  special  students  of  the  subject. 

The  colonial  colleges  were  established  by  graduates 
of  the  English  universities  who  intended  to  reproduce 
the  conditions  of  Oxford  and  Cambridge.  To  a  consid- 
erable extent  they  succeeded.  From  their  English  mod- 
els. Harvard  and  Yale  inherited  a  strong  ecclesiastical 
bias,  a  curriculum  tinged  with  scholasticism  and  a  sys- 
tem of  almost  monastic  common  life  and  discipline. 
But  the  conditions  of  life  in  a  new  country  made  any 
duplication  of  or  even  approach  to  the  English  univer- 
sity system  an  impossibility.  The  Oxford  or  Cambridge 
college  was  a  unit  in  a  larger  whole,  the  university;  Har- 
vard, Yale,  and  William  and  Mary  were  isolated  institu- 
tions. The  English  college  was  the  product  of  cen- 
6  81 


82  STUDENT  LIFE  AND   CUSTOMS. 

turies  of  growth;  it  was  largely  governed  by  tradition, 
and  frequently  possessed  great  wealth.  The  colonial 
colleges  were  poor  and  in  close  dependence  on  the  com- 
mnnity;  the  Church  controlled  them  and  the  State  sup- 
ported them.  Their  intellectual  environment  possessed 
few  of  the  resources  of  an  older  country  and  limited  the 
range  of  their  activity.  The  colonists  were  involved 
in  a  hand-to-hand  contest  with  Nature  which  absorbed 
their  energies.  Europe  was  far  away,  and  communica- 
tion with  the  other  colonial  centres  dangerous  and  un- 
certain; men  were  self-centred,  their  horizon  was  nar- 
row; fighting  Indians  and  planning  settlements  left  no 
leisure  for  the  free  play  of  speculation.  But  for  the 
dominant  theological  interests  there  would  have  been 
no  colleges  until  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century. 
Under  existing  conditions  practical  interests  neces- 
sarily predominated;  the  colleges  were  little  more 
than  schools  for  training  clergymen.  The  disinterested 
love  of  learning,  the  atmosphere  of  criticism  and  dis- 
cussion which  were  not  wholly  absent  from  Oxford  and 
Cambridge  in  the  most  degenerate  decades  of  the  eight- 
eenth century,  could  not  be  found  at  Harvard  or  Yale 
until  nearly  the  end  of  the  period. 

Our  first  glimpses  into  the  social  life  of  the  students 
discover  a  dreary  round  of  fast  days,  early  chapels,  se- 
vere punishments,  and  bad  board;  the  students  seem  to 
be  mere  boys  and  are  treated  as  such.  As  the  eight- 
eenth century  advances  the  signs  of  restlessness  begin 
to  make  their  appearance,  and  gradually  a  change  in 
morals  and  manners  takes  place.  Profane  cursing  and 
swearing,  the  frequenting  of  taverns  and  alehouses,  the 
custom  of  keeping  wine,  beer,  and  distilled  liquors  in 
college  rooms,  all  increased,  to  the  sorrow  of  the  gov- 
erning authorities.  Tutors  were  insulted  and  unlawful 
combinations  against  the  college  government  were  fre- 
quent.    Laws  were  made,  penalties  inflicted,  and  re- 


STUDEXT   LIFE   IX   COLOXIAL   COLLEGES.        S3 

monstrances  repeated  without  eradicating  these  evils  or 
even  materially  diminishing  them.* 

Student  excesses  culminated  during  Commencement 
-^-eek.  In  1693  the  Harvard  authorities  warned  the 
students  against  the  dangers  of  an  oversupply  of  plum 
cake.  Xearly  thirty  years  later  (1722)  a  law  was 
passed  to  the  effect  that  no  plum  cake,  roasted,  boiled, 
or  baked  meats  or  pies  should  be  made  by  any  "  com- 
mencer."  Distilled  liquors  were  likewise  forbidden. 
During  the  eighteenth  century  Commencement  became 
more  and  more  a  public  occasion;  it  was  flocked  to  by 
graduates  and  visitors  from  every  section  of  the  colony. 
A  procession  of  official  worthies  from  Boston,  headed  by 
the  royal  governor  of  the  province,  lent  pomp  and  dig- 
nity to  the  affair.  At  no  other  time  was  such  an  assem- 
blage of  wealth,  dignity,  and  beauty  brought  together. 
There  was  great  difficulty  in  maintaining  order,  and  dis- 
graceful scenes  sometimes  occurred  on  the  Common. f 

The  first  form  of  student  association  to  come  into 
being  was  the  class  which  was  for  many  years  the  ac- 
cepted unit  of  college  life  before  it  possessed  any  formal 
organization.  Being  for  many  years  an  almost  uncon- 
scious product  of  surrounding  influences,  few  records 
of  its  early  history  remain.  The  early  laws  of  Harvard 
(1647)  recognise  the  class,  not  as  a  social  organization, 
but   as   a   scholastic   division   for  teaching  purposes. J; 

*  Quincy,  J.     History  of  Harvard  University,  vol.  ii,  p.  90. 

f  Accounts  of  Commencement  will  be  found  in  the  following 
monographs  :  Xorthrop,  Cyrus.  Commencement  (at  Yale),  Yale 
Book,  vol.  i,  p.  366.  Quincy,  Edmund.  Commencement  Day  (at 
Harvard),  Harvard  Book,  vol.  ii,  p.  147.  Todd,  Henry  Alfred. 
Commencement  Day  (at  Princeton),  Princeton  Book,  p.  169. 

X  For  those  unfamiliar  with  American  college  usage  it  may 
be  well  to  state  that  the  class  consists  of  all  those  students  who, 
in  the  natural  course  of  events,  will  graduate  in  a  given  year. 
The  class  is  known  by  the  year  of  its  graduation,  as,  for  instance. 


84  STUDENT  LIFE  AND  CUSTOMS. 

The  employment  of  the  word  in  these  two  diverse  signi- 
fications has  led  to  much  confusion.  It  is  evident  that 
the  social  organization  was  an  outgrowth  of  the  scholas- 
tic division,  but  even  the  approximate  date  of  its  ap- 
pearance can  not  be  given.  We  know  that  by  1725  at 
Harvard,  and  1745  at  Yale,  the  members  of  classes  were 
ranked  according  to  the  social  position  of  their  fathers, 
a  usage  which  points  to  the  existence  of  the  class  as  a 
recognised  student  institution.*  Class  day  was  not  in- 
cluded in  the  programme  of  Commencement  week  at 
Harvard  until  1760.  Previous  to  this  date  the  seniors 
met  informally  and  chose  one  of  the  members  to 
bid  farewell  to  the  college  and  facult}^  in  a  valedictory 
address.  The  early  class-day  programmes  consisted  of  a 
"  Latin  oration  sandwiched  in  between  two  prayers.^^  f 
The  list  of  class  orators  did  not  begin  until  1776,  the 
poets  not  until  1786.  It  is  probable  that  the  class  as 
a  social  unit  existed  as  early  as  the  beginning  of  the 
eighteenth  century. 

The  distinction  between  men  of  different  years  was 
made  at  the  English  universities;  X  the  terms  freshman 
and  sophister  (sophomore)  were  in  use  there,  but  the 
tutorial  system  of  instruction,  and  the  existence  of  a 
large  number  of  colleges  which  served  as  social  units, 
prevented  these  distinctions  from  assuming  importance. 
The  class  association  was  the  product  of  the  conditions 

the  class  of  1895  which  would  enter  college  in  1891.  Each  year 
of  the  college  course  has  its  name,  the  first  being  known  as  the 
Freshman,  the  second  as  the  Sophomore,  the  third  as  the  Junior, 
and  the  fourth  as  the  Senior.  For  many  years  during  the  early 
period  every  student  necessarily  belonged  to  some  class. 

*  F.  B.  Dexter.  On  Some  Social  Distinctions  at  Harvard  and 
Yale  before  the  Eevolution,  in  the  Proceedings  of  the  American 
Antiquarian  Society,  Worcester,  1894. 

f  James  Russell  Lowell.     Class  Day,  Harvard  Book,  vol.  ii. 

X  Masson,  David.     Life  of  Milton,  vol.  i. 


STUDENT  LIFE  IX  COLONIAL  COLLEGES.   85 

of  early  colonial  life.  The  most  important  factors  in 
its  development  in  the  order  of  their  importance  were 
(1)  the  recitation  method  of  instruction,  (2)  the  fresh- 
man laws^  (3)  the  system  of  common  life,  and  (4)  the 
gulf  between  professor  and  student. 

It  was  evidently  the  design  of  the  founders  of  Har- 
vard to  reproduce  the  form  of  instruction  of  a  Cam- 
bridge college.  In  many  respects  such  a  duplication 
was  impossible.  The  poverty  of  the  colonists  reacted 
on  the  methods  employed  in  teaching.  The  resources 
for  the  establishment  of  fellowships  and  tutorships  of 
the  English  type  were  wanting;  the  names  persisted, 
but  the  institutions  perished.  Instead  of  personal  tu- 
tors and  university  lectureships,  economy  dictated  the 
formation  of  a  uniform  course  of  study  which  in  turn 
led  to  the  adoption  of  the  recitation  method  of  instruc- 
tion, which  was  the  prime  factor  in  developing  the  class 
as  a  social  institution.  The  men  of  the  same  year  re- 
cited together  during  their  entire  residence  of  four 
years,  which  naturally  gave  rise  to  a  strong  tie  of  asso- 
ciation. 

The  so-called  "  Freshman  Laws "  were  another 
strong  force  in  producing  class  feeling.  By  this  unique 
code  the  first-year  students  were  consigned  to  a  form 
of  servitude  similar  to  the  fagging  of  the  English 
public  schools.  The  sophomores  tutored  the  freshmen 
and  instructed  them  in  the  manners  of  the  college. 
The  freshmen  were  to  run  errands  for  all  the  upper 
classes,  and,  in  some  instances,  particular  freshmen 
were  assigned  to  college  dignitaries.  "We  find  refer- 
ences to  president's  freshmen  and  tutor's  freshmen. 
In  connection  with  their  employment,  a  curious  hier- 
archy of  privilege  developed  itself.  A  tutor  could  take 
a  freshman  from  a  fellow,  a  fellow's  rights  were  su- 
perior to  those  of  a  senior  sophister,  a  senior  sophis- 
ter's  to  a  junior  sophister's,  and  a  junior  sophister's  to 


86  STUDENT  LIFE  AND   CUSTOMS. 

a  sophomore's.  The  freshmen  had  collective  duties, 
one  of  which  was  to  supply  the  upper  classes  with  balls 
and  bats  on  the  playing  field.* 

A  rigid  ceremonial  of  the  Spanish-Bourbon  type 
was  instituted.  The  freshmen  must  take  off  their  hats 
on  the  approach  of  an  instructor  or  upper  classman; 
they  must  also  pause  on  the  approach  of  one  of  their 
superiors.  The  laws  interdicted  all  impertinence  on 
the  part  of  the  novice.  He  was  not  allowed  to  rap  on 
the  doors  of  the  upper  classmen  or  to  play  with  them. 
He  belonged  to  a  separate  and  inferior  caste. 

The  Freshman  Laws  were  in  force  in  a  number  of 
colleges  until  the  opening  years  of  the  nineteenth  cen- 
tury. While  Princeton  led  the  way  in  their  abolition 
by  a  resolution  of  the  faculty  in  1767,1  they  remained 
fixed  at  Dartmouth  X  until  1797,  and  at  Yale  and  Mid- 
dlebury  until  1804.  Harvard*  abolished  the  code 
previous  to  the  Eevolution,  but  so  strong  was  the  out- 
cry against  this  curtailment  of  privilege  that  the  laws 
were  again  established.  1 1    Their  significance  in  the  evo- 

*  The  Freshman  Laws  of  Harvard  are  published  in  an  appen- 
dix to  Josiah  Quincy's  History  of  Harvard  University,  vol.  ii,  p. 
541,  and  in  B.  H.  Hall's  A  Collection  of  College  Words  and  Cus- 
toms, pp.  213,  223.  An  excellent  abridgment  is  found  in  B.  C. 
Steiner's  History  of  Higher  Education  in  Connecticut,  p.  111. 

f  McClean,  J.  History  of  the  College  of  New  Jersey,  vol.  i, 
p.  298. 

t  Hall,  B.  H.'  A  Collection  of  College  "Words  and  Customs, 
p.  225. 

*  Quincy,  J.     The  History  of  Harvard  University,  vol.  ii. 

I  Anomalous  as  these  rules,  sanctioned  by  the  highest  govern- 
ing body,  appear  to  us,  they  were  entirely  in  accord  with  the 
educational  traditions  of  that  age.  Indeed,  we  find  similar 
codes  in  the  institutions  of  continental  Europe,  dating  in  their 
origin  from  the  middle  ages.  As  we  have  already  seen  (Chapter 
I),  the  worst  excesses  of  pennalism  in  the  G-erman  universities  were 
occasioned  by  regulations  almost  identical  in  theory  with  those 


STUDENT  LIFE  IN  COLONIAL  COLLEGES.        87 

^  hition  of  the  class  system  was  twofold.  As  we  have 
already  indicated,  they  fostered  a  strong  class  feeling 
by  segregating  the  freshmen  at  the  outset  of  their  ca- 
reer. Scarcely  less  important  was  the  degeneration  of 
the  tutoring  and  instructing  of  freshmen  into  rough 
horseplay,  and  finalW  into  the  hazing  and  rushing  of 
•  the  modern  period.  The  Freshman  Laws  contained  in 
germ  all  the  abuse  to  which  first-year  men  have  since 
been  subjected. 

A  third  influence  were  the  common  meals  and  dor- 
mitory life  which  belonged  to  all  the  colleges  of  the 
eighteenth  century.  The  common  life  was  jointly  the 
product  of  English  precedent  and  the  necessities  of  a 
new  settlement  where  dwelling  houses  were  at  a  premi- 
um. Just  what  part  this  factor  played  in  the  forma- 
tion of  the  class  is  now  difficult  to  determine.  It  made 
some  strong  form  of  association  inevitable,  without 
determining  to  any  considerable  extent  what  that  form 
should  be.* 

The  conditions  of  discipline,  particularly  the  rela- 
tion between  professor  and  student,  likewise  made  for 
some  strong  form  of  association.  Indeed,  it  is  with 
considerable  difficulty  that  the  college  graduate  of  to- 
day comprehends  the  relations  between  the  two  ele- 
ments in  the  eighteenth-century  college.  Like  its 
English  prototype,  the  colonial  college  was  pervaded 
with  a  strong  ecclesiastical  flavour.  ]Many  of  its  regu- 
lations were  those  of  a  theological  seminary.  Prayers 
M'ere  read  twice  each  day,  usually  at  unreasonable  hours. 

we  have  just  described.  Relics  of  similar  custorns  have  survived 
in  the  English  colleges  until  the  last  generation.  The  ateliers  of 
Paris  have  to-day  their  rough  ordeal  for  the  newcomer,  although 
it  apparently  rests  on  a  recent  tradition. 

*  For  an  account  of  the  part  played  by  the  Commons,  see 
Butler,  Daniel.  Commons  (at  Yale),  Yale  Book.  vol.  i,  p.  297. 
Hall,  B.  H.    Common?  (at  Harvard),  Harvard  Book,  vol.  ii,  p.  75. 


88  STUDENT  LIFE  AND  CUSTOMS. 

As  a  literary  exercise,  the  students  were  compelled  to 
summarize  the  previous  Sunday's  sermon.  Much  of 
the  time  during  the  senior  year  was  expended  on  large 
quartos  treating  of  divinity.  Blasphemy  and  the  dif- 
fusion of  irreligion  were  the  most  heinous  of  crimes. 
The  professors'  chairs  were  usually  filled  by  clergymen, 
and  the  presidents  were  uniformly  ecclesiastics.  The 
factional  contests  over  the  management  of  the  colleges 
were  nearly  always  founded  on  theological  differences. 
New  colleges  were  established  for  the  same  reason. 
Yale  was  a  protest  against  the  doctrinal  laxity  of  Har- 
vard, Dartmouth  an  embodiment  of  evangelical  distrust 
of  Yale  formalism,  Brown  represented  the  Baptists, 
Kings  (Columbia)  the  Episcopalians,  Princeton  the 
Presbyterians. 

As  a  result  of  this  predominant  ecclesiastical  bias 
one  would  expect  a  certain  austerity  and  rigour  of  dis- 
cipline. The  long  list  of  regulations  and  penalties 
which  one  discovers  far  surpasses  expectation  in  this 
respect.  Eules  dealing  with  every  possible  variation 
of  conduct  were  drawn  up,  with  lists  of  fines  attached. 
The  Harvard  laws  enumerated  eighty-three  separate 
offences.*  Most  amusements  were  forbidden.  The 
students  could  not  hunt  or  go  sailing  without  permis- 
sion, at  New  Haven.  Theatrical  performances,  bil- 
liards, cards,  and  dice  were  on  the  black  list.  A  stu- 
dent might  not  lie  down  on  his  own  bed  in  daytime  nor 
spend  his  own  money  without  first  securing  the  con- 
sent of  the  authorities.  He  was  strictly  prohibited 
from  leaving  his  own  room  except  at  certain  specified 
hours,  and  was  never  permitted  to  attend  elections  or 
mingle  with  the  citizens.     The  teaching  force  of  the 

*  Josiah  Qiiincy.  History  of  Hansard  University,  vol.  i,  p.  515 ; 
the  appendix  contains  a  reprint  of  the  Harvard  laws.  A  digest 
of  the  Yale  code  is  given  in  B.  C,  Steiner's  History  of  Education 
in  Connecticut. 


STUDENT  LIFE  IN  COLONIAL  COLLEGES.        89 

college  did  police  and  detective  service  in  discovering 
and  punishing  all  violations  of  this  code. 

During  the  later  colonial  period  the  class  bond  was 
a  close  one.  Class  activity  showed  itself  in  annual  foot- 
ball games  and  wrestling  matches,  and  occasionally  in 
rebellions  against  the  college  government.  There  was 
as  yet  no  thought  of  formal  organization,  although  the 
institution  of  class-day  orators  opened  the  w^ay  for  the 
election  of  temporary  officials. 

The  debating  society,*  both  within  and  without  aca- 
demic precincts,  was  largely  an  outgrowth  of  that  great 
enlightening  movement  of  the  eighteenth  century, 
known  in  Germany  as  the  Aufkldrung.  The  marked 
characteristics  of  the  Aufklarung  was  its  tendency  to 
submit  all  problems  to  the  test  of  reason.  The  world 
and  its  inhabitants  were  to  be  judged  from  the  stand- 
point of  pure  intellect.  Knowledge  and  discussion  were 
exalted  above  the  will  and  the  feelings,  f  Such  a  creed 
could  not  but  stimulate  popular  discussion,  for  it  was 
directed  not  to  select  groups  of  specialists,  but  to  the 
drawing-rooms  and  average  common  sense.  In  its  home 
the  Aufklarung  led  to  the  formation  of  numerous  acad- 

*  Unlike  the  class  association,  which  is  national  in  its  origin, 
the  debating  society  has  a  racial  basis.  If  a  distinction  is  made 
between  the  debating  society  and  clubs,  having  in  view  some 
definite  policy  of  revolutionary  propaganda,  we  find  that  the 
former  class  is  largely  confined  to  peoples  of  an  Anglo-Saxon 
origin.  They  are  a  testimonial  to  the  strength  of  representative 
government  and  parliamentary  discussion,  and  indicate  the  domi- 
nant interest  in  politics  which  has  characterized  the  English  race 
for  the  last  three  centuries.  The  debating  society  also  indicates 
the  nature  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  political  interest,  which  has  been 
concentrated  less  on  international  complications  and  military 
achievement  and  more  on  the  adjustment  of  the  relations  between 
the  individual  and  society. 

f  For  a  characterization  of  the  Aufldaruns:,  see  H.  A.  Taine, 
Ancient  Regime,  Book  III  ;  John  Morlev,  Voltaire. 


90  STUDENT  LIFE  AND  CUSTOMS. 

emies  which  discussed  all  subjects,  from  scientific  agri- 
culture to  the  existence  of  a  God.  In  England  it 
strengthened  the  various  royal  societies,  re-enforced  the 
club  movement,  and  later  originated  different  schemes 
for  diffusing  knowledge  among  the  masses.  The  soil  of 
America  was  prepared  for  the  new  stimulus.  The  con- 
ditions of  frontier  life  favouring  versatility  and  individ- 
ual initiative  and  capacity  and  the  strength  of  local  in- 
stitutions, both  political  and  ecclesiastical,  all  aided  the 
rapid  growth  of  free  discussion.  During  the  latter  half 
of  the  Puritan  period  we  find  self-improvement  soci- 
eties *  which  soon  expanded  along  general  culture  lines. 
These  organizations,  however,  were  local  and  scattered, 
of  necessity,  because  of  the  physical  conditions  of  set- 
tlement. It  remained  for  the  first  half  of  the  nine- 
teenth century  to  organize  these  isolated  attempts  in  the 
Lyceum  movement. 

The  universities  could  not  long  escape  the  con- 
tagion of  the  new  ideas.  At  Oxford  and  Cambridge, 
debating  clubs,  the  forerunners  of  the  modern  unions, 
were  being  slowly  evolved  from  associations  purely  so- 
cial in  character.!  The  Speculative  Society  of  the  Uni- 
versity of  Edinburgh,  renowned  for  its  great  names, 
dates  from  1764,  while  the  Historical  Society  of  Dublin 
was  an  earlier  growth.  |  Thus  far  no  evidence  has 
come  to  light  bearing  on  the  relations  between  these 
societies  and  the  early  organizations  of  Yale,  Princeton, 
and  Harvard.  They  are  simply  mentioned  here  as  one 
of  the  phenomena  of  the  eighteenth  century. 

In  addition  to  the  general  movement  of  the  Aufklii- 
rung,  which  in  itself  was  probably  sufficient  to  account 

*  Thorpe,  F.  N.  Benjamin  Franklin  and  the  University  of 
Pennsylvania,  p.  20, 

f  See  Chapter  I  for  an  account  of  these  societies. 

X  Stubbs,  J.  W.  History  of  the  University  of  Dublin  from 
its  Foundation  to  the  Beginning  of  the  Nineteenth  Century.      , 


STUDENT  LIFE  IN  COLONIAL  COLLEGES.        91 

# 
for  the  existence  of  the  American  debating  societies, 
there    are    other    conditions    which    strengthened    the 
initial  impulse  and  to  a  certain  extent  determined  the 
direction  which  it  should  take. 

The  first  and  most  important  factor  in  the  environ- 
ment was  the  political  activity  of  the  colonists.  To- 
gether with  religion,  politics  formed  the  chief  culture 
interest  of  the  people.  The  debates  in  the  assemblies, 
the  contests  with  the  royal  governors,  the  large  degree 
of  authority  accorded  the  localities,  all  these  tended  to 
foster  a  lively  interest  in  public  affairs — an  interest 
not  confined  to  a  capital  or  to  a  single  class  in  society, 
but  equally  diffused  throughout  the  community.  The 
churches,  both  established  and  dissenting,  were  an  addi- 
tional source  of  culture  to  the  people.  The  meagreness 
of  the  press,  the  cost  of  books,  the  absence  of  theatres 
and  other  facilities  for  amusement,  gave  the  platform 
and  pulpit  a  culture  significance  which  they  have  since 
lost  with  the  increasing  complexity  of  civilization. 

The  dominance  of  the  speech  and  the  sermon  was 
recognised  by  the  educational  institutions.  Syllogistic 
disputes,  one  of  the  common  modes  of  instruction  dur- 
ing the  middle  ages,  still  survived  in  the  colleges  of  the 
eighteenth  century.  The  curricula  and  Commencement 
programmes  of  that  period  present  a  strange  and 
almost  grotesque  jumble  of  the  mediaeval  and  modern, 
of  Puritan  theology  and  French  rationalism.  At  the 
same  Commencement  disputes  of  the  old  type,  as  "  Ma- 
tcria  cogitare  non  potest/'  are  found  side  by  side  with 
debates  on  the  "  Expediency  of  the  Americans  in  their 
Present  State  becoming  an  Independent  State,"  and  ora- 
tions "  Concerning  oratorical  Art  and  Benevolence."  * 

*  From  a  newspaper  account  of  a  Commencement,  transcribed 
in  Tolman,  W.  H.,  History  of  Higher  Education  in  Rhode 
Island,  p.  102. 


92  STUDENT  LIFE  AND  CUSTOMS. 

Systematic  instruction  in  both  syllogistic  and  fo- 
rensic disputation  was  offered  in  the  colleges.  By  the 
Yale  curriculum  of  1755  syllogistic  disputations  fell  to 
all.  Seven  years  later  it  is  recorded  that  the  two  upper 
classes  disputed  syllogistically  Mondays,  and  on  Tues- 
days spoke  forensically  upon  the  issue  involved  in  the 
problem  "  Whether  Adam  knew  that  eternal  damnation 
would  be  his  doom  if  he  did  eat  the  forbidden  fruit."  * 

At  Princeton,  the  authorities  arranged  a  systematic 
course.  Preparatory  instruction  was  given  to  the  three 
lower  classes,  who  practised  declamations  of  their  own 
composing.  The  seniors,  who  received  the  largest 
share  of  attention,  appeared  in  a  series  of  disputations 
on  natural  and  revealed  religion  which  were  delivered 
on  Sunday  "  before  a  promiscuous  assembly."  This 
practice  was  intended  to  habituate  them  to  face  an  audi- 
ence, and  was  also  found  conducive  to  religious  ends. 
Secular  oratory  was  represented  by  a  monthly  oration  of 
their  own  composing,  which  was  critically  examined  by 
a  member  of  the  faculty  in  regard  to  spelling,  punctua- 
tion, and  the  use  of  figures  of  speech,  f 

With  such  an  interest  in  public  speaking,  debating 
societies  could  not  be  long  appearing.  The  date  of  the 
formation  of  the  first  society,  and  even  the  names  of  the 
early  clubs  can  not  be  given  because  of  the  disappear- 
ance of  the  records.  This  omission  is  not  a  matter  of 
high  importance  because  we  possess  full  accounts  of  their 
proceedings  shortly  after  they  became  prominent.  A 
much  more  serious  gap  in  our  knowledge,  as  we  have 
already  indicated,  is  the  inability  to  ascertain  their  re- 
lations to  similar  organizations  in  Great  Britain. 

The  earliest  society,  the  record  of  which  has  been 

*  Steiner,  B.  C.  History  of  Education  in  Connecticut, 
p.  112. 

f  McClean,  J.  History  of  the  College  of  New  Jersey,  vol.  i, 
p.  267. 


STUDENT  LIFE  IX  COLONIAL   COLLEGES.        93 

preserved,  was  the  Crotonian  Society  of  Yale,  which  had 
a  brief  existence  and  made  way  for  Linonia,  the  oldest 
permanent  society,  and  the  Brothers  in  Unity  (1768).* 
Contemporaneous  with  Crotonia  and  Linonia  at  Yale, 
were  the  Plain-Dealing  and  Well-Meaning  Clubs  of 
Princeton.  A  fierce  rivalry,  involving  the  interchange 
of  scurrilous  pamphlets,  led  to  their  suppression  by  the 
faculty.  A  year  after  this  action,  were  founded,  the 
American  Whig  and  Cliosophic  Societies,  the  most 
venerable  and  powerful  of  college  debating  clubs  in 
America,  and  the  only  organizations  of  this  early  period 
which  still  survive  in  their  original  capacity,  f 

During  the  middle  decades  of  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury the  Harvard  faculty  took  particular  pains  to  im- 
prove the  public  speaking  of  the  students,  a  move  which 
led  to  the  foundation  of  speaking  clubs.  The  Cala- 
bogus  Club  was  organized  as  early  as  1758;  the  White- 
field  Club  in  1759.  We  are  left  to  conjecture  the  pro- 
grammes of  these  early  societies.  The  Institute,  of 
1770,  the  most  famous  of  the  debating  clubs  of  Harvard, 
was  founded  by  John  Phillips,  John  Warren,  and  other 
members  of  the  class  of  1771.  In  1773  the  Mercurian, 
another  important  speaking  club,  united  with  the  Insti- 
tute, and  gave  it  a  position  of  primacy.  Among  the  sub- 
jects for  orations  during  the  pre-Revolutionary  period 
we  note  "  The  Odiousness  of  Envy  "  and  "  The  Perni- 
cious Habit  of  drinking  Tea."  I 

*  Coes,  E.  B.  The  Literary  Societies  (of  Yale),  Yale  Book, 
vol.  i,  p.  307. 

f  Cameron,  H.  C.  The  American  Whig  Society,  Princeton 
Book,  p.  184,  Jacobus,  M.  W.  The  Cliosophic  Society,  Prince- 
ton Book,  p.  201.  These  two  sketches  are  condensed  and  popu- 
larized by  G.  U.  Wallace  in  his  Princeton  Sketches,  p.  54. 

X  Thayer,  W.  R.  History  of  Harvard  University,  p.  77,  in 
Hurd's  History  of  Middlesex  County,  vol.  i.  Peabody,  F.  G. 
The  Institute  of  1770,  in  Harvard  Book,  vol.  ii,  p.  341. 


94  STUDENT  LIFE  AND  CUSTOMS. 

The  literary  exercises  of  these  early  societies  covered 
a  wide  range  of  territory,  and  lacked  the  dominant  po- 
litical bias  of  the  post-Revolutionary  period.  Theologi- 
cal issues,  mathematical  problems,  and  even  acrostics 
and  puzzles  found  a  place.  Some  of  the  typical  ques- 
tions for  discussion  were  the  following:  To  extract  the 
square  root  of  ^. — Why  is  the  weather  coldest  when 
the  sun  is  nearest  us? — Can  finite -Nature  commit  in- 
finite sin? — Is  God  the  author  of  sin? — Does  the  soul 
always  think? — Was  the  flood  universal?  Ought  the 
slave  trade  to  be  abolished? — Is  a  tax  on  hogs  politic?  * 

No  small  portion  of  energy  was  expended  on  dra- 
matic entertainments,  which  often  incurred  the  suspi- 
cion of  the  faculty.  These  plays  were  usually  light  in 
character  and  along  the  lines  of  the  modern  farce.  The 
exhibitions  were  popular  and  the  prominent  college 
characters  took  part  in  them.  Nathan  Hale,  of  Revolu- 
tionary fame,  and  James  Hillhouse,  played  in  a  per- 
formance called  "  The  Beaux'  Stratagems.'^  On  an- 
other occasion  a  musical  dialogue  was  sung  by  two 
prominent  members  of  the  college  in  the  parts  of  Da- 
mon and  Clara,  t 

*  Goes,  E.  B.  The  Literary  Societies  of  Yale,  Yale  Book,  vol. 
i,  p.  311. 

t  Idem.,  p.  313. 


CHAPTER   III. 

studext  life  in  america  dueixg  the  revolu- 
tionary period,  1775-1840. 

§  1.  The  Class  in  the  Eevolutionary  Period. 

Owing  to  the  lack  of  authorities,  no  attempt  was 
made  in  the  preceding  chapter  to  describe  in  detail  the 
activities  of  the  class  during  the  colonial  period.  It  is 
probable  that  much  which  we  are  about  to  describe  con- 
cerning its  activities  during  the  Eevolutionary  period 
applies  to  the  earlier  conditions  as  well. 

As  we  have  before  indicated,  the  old  theory  of  dis- 
cipline, by  which  the  college  faculty  was  entitled  to 
exercise  a  parental  supervision  over  the  students,  had  a 
determining  effect  on  the  direction  which  the  activity 
of  that  organization  took  in  its  after-career.  The  pro- 
fessors and  tutors  were  not  only  instructors,  but  also 
policemen  and  night  watchmen.  They  were  in  duty 
bound  to  capture  and  punish  all  rebels  against  the  se- 
vere college  discipline  of  the  time.  This  led  to  most 
unfortunate  results. 

One  writer  testifies  that  no  small  proportion  of  the 
breaches  of  the  peace  had  for  their  sole  object  the 
drawing  out  of  this  somewhat  grotesque  posse,  whose 
manoeuvres  around  a  bonfire  were  wont  to  elicit  shouts 
of  laughter  and  applause  of  the  authors,  whom  they 
strove  in  vain  to  discover.*     The  college  buildings  of 

*  A.  P.  Peabody,  in  Harvard  Register,  February,  1880. 

95 


9.6  STUDENT  LIFE  AND  CUSTOMS. 

that  period,  unlike  the  quadrangles  of  the  English  uni- 
versities, were  not  designed  with  a  view  to  discipline, 
and  their  open  and  isolated  position  made  the  detection 
of  disorder  difficult.*  The  immediate  control  of  the 
dormitories  was  in  the  hands  of  the  tutors,  who  were 
oftentimes  overcome  with  the  dignity  of  their  station 
but  inexperienced  in  dealing  with  men.f  Ineffectual 
as  this  supervision  was  from  a  disciplinary  standpoint, 
it  promoted  friction  between  teacher  and  student,  and 
prevented  the  professors  from  exercising  the  influence 
due  their  station.;]: 

As  a  result  of  the  system  outlined  above,  the  stu- 
dents considered  the  faculty  their  natural  enemies. 
There  existed  between  the  two  parties  little  kindly  in- 
tercourse, and  that  little  was  in  secret.  If  a  student 
went  unsummoned  to  a  teacher's  room,  it  was  nearly 
always  by  night.  A  class  looked  with  contempt  on  any 
of  its  members  who  should  enter  a  recitation  room  be- 
fore the  ringing  of  the  bell,  or  remain  after  the  close 
of  a  recitation  to  ask  a  question.*  So  strong  was  this 
feeling  of  antagonism  to  the  faculty,  that  the  students 
who  obeyed  the  regulations  and  attempted  to  be  on 
friendly  terms  with  their  instructors  were  given  oppro- 
brious nicknames,  the  most  common  of  which  were  Blues, 
Blue  Skins,  and  Blue  Lights.  ||  At  Harvard  they  were 
known  as  Fishers  and  Piscatorians.  A  man  was  accused 
of  "  fishing  "  often  on  the  slightest  pretext.     Any  stu- 

*  Wayland,  F.     Thoughts  on  the  Present  Collegiate  System. 

f  Keminiseences  of  Scenes  and  Characters  in  College,  by  a 
Graduate  of  Yale,  Class  of  1821,  p.  133. 

X  Qiiincy,  J.  P.  Coercion  in  the  Later  Stages  of  Education, 
Old  and  New,  vol.  viii,  p.  47. 

*  Peabody,  A.  P. ,  in  Harvard  Register,  February,  1880, 
quoted  in  Bush,  p.  190. 

II  Hall,  B.  H.  College  Words  and  Customs,  pp.  30,  31. 
Cutting,  George  A.     Student  Life  at  Amherst,  p.  132. 


STUDENT   LIFE   IN   REVOLUTIONARY    PERIOD.    97 

cleiit  who  showed  lively  interest  in  his  studies,  or  was 
unusually  courteous  to  his  instructors,  or  who  refused  to 
join  in  some  general  disorder,  was  open  to  suspicion. 
To  furnish  the  faculty  with  information  concerning  any 
prank  or  violation  of  the  statutes  was  the  most  heinous 
crime  a  collegian  could  commit,  and  the  bare  suspicion 
of  it  subjected  a  man  to  social  ostracism.*  A  member 
of  the  faculty  who  attempted  to  be  on  friendly  terms 
with  the  students  was  likely  to  discover  that  his  kindly 
efforts  were  misconstrued,  and  that  he  was  being  re- 
garded with  special  fear  as  a  spy.f 

The  factors  which  we  have  enumerated — viz.,  the 
recitation  method  of  instruction,  the  Freshman  Laws, 
the  college  dormitory,  and  the  antagonism  between 
faculty  and  students — produced  a  vigorous  common  life 
and  esprit  du  corps  early  in  academic  history.  By  the 
beginning  of  the  eighteenth  century  the  class  was  recog- 
nised as  a  fully  developed  social  institution.  It  was 
without  formal  constitution,  and  its  only  officials,  with 
one  or  two  exceptions,  were  the  officers  chosen  just  be- 
fore graduation  to  officiate  at  the  class  exercises.  The 
place  and  functions  of  the  class  in  student  life  re- 
mained approximately  the  same  during  the  purely  col- 
lege period  of  American  superior  instruction — that  is, 
from  the  eighteenth  century  to  1870,  when  the  univer- 
sity idea  began  to  be  influential.  Without  further 
introduction  of  a  historical  nature,  we  shall  attempt 
to  describe  the  different  activities  in  which  it  played 
a  part. 

First  in  importance  come  the  relations  of  the  classes 
with  each  other.  From  the  middle  ages  to  the  modern 
art  school  it  has  been  customary  to  subject  the  new 
student  to  some  form  of  initiation.     The  tendency  was 

*  Peabody,  A.  P.     Harvard  Reminiscences,  p.  188. 
flbid.,  p.  137. 

7 


98  STUDENT   LIFE  AND  CUSTOMS. 

embodied  in  the  old  Freshman  Laws,  and  their  disuse 
opened  the  way  for  numerous  perversions.  We  shall 
describe  these  perversions  under  the  general  term  of 
'^  hazing/'  making  our  usage  of  the  term  clear  as  we  pro- 
ceed. Hazing  may  be  defined  as  the  process  of  persecu- 
tion to  which  the  freshmen  are  subjected  by  the  sopho- 
mores. Hazing  shades  off  by  slight  degrees  to  the  mere 
practical  joke.  During  the  first  month  at  college  the 
freshman  found  himself  the  victim  of  numerous  annoy- 
ing customs.  He  was  jeered  at  as  he  went  by  on  his 
way  to  recitations,  and  returned  to  find  his  lamp  wicks 
removed,  and  his  bed  and  belongings  piled  in  the  centre 
of  the  campus.*  His  property  was  at  the  mercy  of  the 
upper  classmen.  The  more  valuable  possessions  were 
usually  surreptitiously  returned  after  a  season,  but  his 
catalogue  and  umbrella,  his  pipes  and  tobacco,  neckties 
and  towels,  remained  in  other  hands,  f  His  room  was 
liable  to  invasion  at  all  hours,  and  his  person  and  be- 
longings formed  the  means  of  amusing  his  tormentors. 
Such  annoyances  as  these  formed  the  prelude  of 
more  elaborate  customs,  one  of  the  most  common  of 
which  was  known  as  "  smoking  out."  A  band  of  sopho- 
mores seizing  a  room,  Avould  close  the  windows,  cover  up 
the  keyhole,  and  endeavour  to  sicken  their  victim  by 
the  density  of  the  tobacco  smoke.  While  waiting  for  the 
process  to  be  effectual,  the  freshman  would  be  com- 
pelled to  scan  Euclid  or  a  Greek  grammar,  make 
speeches,  sing  songs,  dance,  recite  the  alphabet  back- 
ward, or  perform  any  other  nonsensical  action  that  the 
ingenuity  of  his  persecutors  could  suggest.  |  If  he 
proved  obstinate  or  unwilling,  the  sophomores  would 
throw  a  blanket  over  his  head  and  blow  tobacco  smoke 

*  Cutting,  G.  A.     Student  Life  at  Amherst,  p.  123. 
f  Bagg,  L.  H.     Four  Years  at  Yale,  by  a  Graduate  of  '69, 
p.  252. 

tlhld.,  p.  250. 


STUDENT  LIFE  IN  R7j:V0LUTI0XAIIY  PERIOD.    ^^ 

up  under  it  until  he  was  either  stifled  or  sick.  At  the 
University  of  Vermont  a  pumpkin  was  taken,  a  portion 
of  the  top  cut  away,  and  the  interior  filled  with  fine-cut 
tobacco.  It  was  then  placed  on  the  freshman^s  table 
and  fire  blown  into  it.  After  the  fire  died  away  and  the 
room  was  filled  with  smoke,  the  sophomores  put  the 
freshman  to  bed,  with  the  pumpkin  for  a  nightcap.* 

Another  custom,  essentially  different,  was  observed 
at  the  University  of  Virginia,  and  known  as  "  initia- 
tion.'^ The  freshmen  were  prepared  for  societies  which 
had  no  existence  by  a  peculiar  process.  The  newcomers 
were  com^pelled  to  give  a  written  list,  tested  under  oath 
of  the  entire  number  of  their  shirts  and  other  necessary 
articles  of  wardrobe.  This  list  they  were  to  commit 
to  memory  and  pass  an  examination  upon,  which  was 
usually  accomplished  with  due  satisfaction.  Then  the 
freshmen  are  remanded  to  their  rooms,  where  they  are 
kept  awake  by  a  hideous  discord  of  horns,  tin  pans,  and 
horse  fiddles,  made  under  their  windows.  About  two 
hours  before  da^Ti  they  are  taken  out  one  by  one.  Each 
freshman  is  taken  in  tow  by  a  group  of  upper  classmen, 
led  around  through  the  dark,  and  finally  left  in  a 
lecture  room,  where  he  is  told  to  ring  for  whatever  he 
wants,  either  hot  biscuits  or  coffee,  but  forbidden  to 
leave  the  room  without  an  express  order  from  the  faculty. 
His  stay  is  proportioned  to  his  knowledge  of  the  world,  f 

"  Tutoring  freshmen  "  at  Yale,  a  somewhat  similar 
performance,  had  for  its  basis  a  burlesque  on  the  old 
custom  of  "  instructing  freshmen."  Great  pomp  and  so- 
lemnity were  observed  on  this  occasion.  The  sophomore 
who  acted  as  chairman  wore  a  powdered  wig  of  venerable 
aspect,  and  his  desk  rested  on  a  pile  of  huge  Hebrew 
folios.    After  the  freshmen  have  been  duly  impressed  by 

*  Hall,  B.  IT.     College  Words  and  Customs,  p.  435. 
+  Ibid.,  p.  265. 


%  STUDENT  LIFE  AND  CUSTOMS. 

the  affected  seriousness  of  the  scene,  the  chairman  in 
eloquent  and  pathetic  language  describes  the  tempta- 
tions of  a  great  city  and  the  thorns  and  dangers  to 
which  a  novice  is  exposed,  and  the  vortex  of  ruin  into 
which,  if  he  walks  unwarily,  the  newcomer  will  be 
plunged.  Then,  reversing  the  picture,  the  orator  fires 
the  youthful  ambition  with  glowing  descriptions  of  the 
honours  which  await  the  successful,  and  opens  to  eager 
view  the  dazzling  prospect  of  college  fame.* 

"  Salting  the  freshmen,^^  at  Dartmouth,  consisted 
in  placing  salt  and  water  on  their  seats  in  chapel. 
These  elements  were  symbolical  of  cleanliness,  preser- 
vation, and  health.  Custom  at  Bowdoin  substituted 
molasses  for  the  salt  and  water,  f 

While  the  tricks  and  customs  enumerated  above  were 
commonly  spoken  of  in  a  loose  way  as  hazing,  they  must 
not  be  confounded  with  hazing  proper,  which  was  a 
much  more  serious  and  cold-blooded  affair.  Some  indi- 
vidual among  the  freshmen,  odious  to  the  sophomores, 
either  from  conceit,  strength,  or  obstinacy,  was  singled 
out  by  a  self-appointed  committee,  waited  upon,  gagged, 
blindfolded,  and  rendered  helpless.  He  was  then  hur- 
ried away  to  some  desolate  locality,  where  various  indig- 
nities were  practised  upon  him.  His  hair  was  commonly 
cut  off  and  his  body  branded  with  indelible  ink  or 
smeared  with  paint.  At  Harvard  he  was  sometimes 
placed  in  a  barrel  in  the  river  Charles.  In  colleges  not 
so  conveniently  situated  to  streams,  the  vicitim  was  put 
under  a  pump  for  a  considerable  period.  In  cases  of 
extreme  hazing  unmentionable  indignities  were  perpe- 
trated. J     From  the  necessities  of  the  case  such  deeds 

*  Hall,  B.  H.     College  Words  and  Customs,  p.  468. 
t  Ibid.,  p.  399. 

X  McCosh.    Discipline  in  American  Colleges,  North  American 
Review,  vol.  cxxvi,  p.  439. 


STUDENT  LIFE  IN  REVOLUTIONARY  PERIOD.     101 

were  performed  at  night.  When  the  process  was  com- 
pleted, the  freshman  was  left  half  clothed  with  a  gag  in 
his  mouth,  and  his  hands  bound  behind  him,  or  else 
would  be  dropped  in  a  cemetery  where  he  would  be  com- 
pelled to  wait  until  morning,  when  the  gates  opened. 

To  the  credit  of  American  studenthood  be  it  said 
that  on  an  average  not  more  than  two  or  three  such 
affairs  occurred  each  year  in  a  tj^pical  college,  and  in 
these  cases  the  students  who  suffered  brought  the 
punishment  on  themselves  in  a  majority  of  cases  by 
some  foolhardy  boast  or  deed.  On  the  other  side,  the 
number  of  sophomores  who  engaged  in  hazing  of  the 
type  described  above  was  never  very  large — probably 
not  more  than  a  dozen  in  a  class  of  seventy-five  or 
eighty.  The  majority,  however,  made  only  a  passive 
opposition  to  the  practice.  The  evil  doers  did  not  suffer 
in  the  estimation  of  their  classmates,  but  on  the  other 
hand  were  often  elected  to  the  highest  offices.  The 
hazing  was  not  always  done  by  a  self-constituted  com- 
mittee. Occasionally  a  secret  tribunal,  descending 
from  class  to  class,  added  the  terrors  of  mystery  to 
those  of  violence.  Yale  possessed  such  an  institution, 
which  was  known  as  the  Court  of  the  Areopagus.  It 
published  a  list  of  officers  abounding  in  strange  names 
and  titles.  The  decrees  of  the  court  were  executed  by 
two  judices,  three  accusators,  four  lictors,  and  four  car- 
nifices.  They  assumed  names  formed  by  odd-looking 
combinations  of  letters,  like  N'chokotsa,  Mochoasele, 
Kantankruss,  or  Phreshietaugh.  The  list  was  printed 
in  heavy  black  t3^pe,  and  surrounded  by  mourning 
rules.* 

The  governing  boards  of  the  various  colleges  tried 
to  extirpate  hazing,  but  without  success.     Public  senti- 

*  Bagg,  L.  H.  Four  Years  at  Yale,  by  a  Graduate  of  '69,  pp. 
308,  309. 


102  STUDENT  LIFE  AND  CUSTOMS. 

ment  among  the  students  condemned  the  man  who 
gave  information  to  the  faculty,  and  there  was  no  other 
means  of  obtaining  information.  The  students  de- 
fended hazing  on  the  ground  that  it  was  the  only  avail- 
able method  of  disciplining  conceited  freshmen.  The 
real  reason  for  its  maintenance  lay  rather  in  the  con- 
servatism and  reverence  for  tradition  which  marks  the 
earliest  period  of  youth.  That  freshmen  had  always 
been  hazed  seemed  sufficient  cause  why  hazing  should 
be  continued.  The  desire  to  have  smart  stories  to  tell 
to  classmates  and  in  public  had  a  marked  influence  in 
perpetuating  the  custom.* 

The  "  rush  "  differed  from  "  hazing  "  in  being  a  free 
and  open  fight,  in  which  the  two  sides  were  almost 
equally  matched.  It  took  place  on  leaving  prayers  at 
chapel  where  the  freshmen  came  out  first  and  the  higher 
classes  in  the  rear  crowded  them,  pushing  and  "  rush- 
ing "  them  until  a  fight  arose.  Sometimes  it  also  oc- 
curred in  other  places.  From  this  primitive  free  fight 
was  developed  in  time  an  organized  formal  conflict  or 
match  game,  taking  place  on  an  open  field  under  fixed 
conditions,  and  resulting  from  a  challenge  sent  from 
one  side  to  the  other,  f  The  rush  had  been  preceded 
by  the  wrestling  matches  which  occurred  between 
college  classes  during  the  eighteenth  century.  At 
Harvard  it  was  the  sophomores  who  challenged  the 
freshmen.  If  the  second-year  men  were  defeated,  the 
juniors  threw  down  the  gauntlet,  and,  in  case  of  their 
failure,  the  seniors.  The  class  of  1796  at  Harvard  abol- 
ished this  custom.  J:  The  football  game,  annually 
played  between  the  freshmen  and  sophomores,  resem- 

*  Edward  Hitchcock.  Reminiscences  of  Amherst  College, 
p.  335. 

f  Jordan,  D.  S.  College  Discipline,  North  American  Review, 
vol.  clxv,  p.  403. 

t  Hall,  B.  H.     College  Words  and  Customs,  p.  498. 


STUDEXT  LIFE  IN  REVOLCTIOXAFvY  PERIOD.     103 

bled  a  rush  much  more  than  the  modern  game  of  that 
name. 

The  majority  of  the  rushes  of  the  period  belonged 
to  the  casual  rough-and-tumble  category.  An  excellent 
description  of  one  of  these  encounters  is  contained  in 
Cutting's  Student  Life  at  Amherst,*  the  main  features 
of  which  will  be  here  given.  This  rush  was  caused  by 
a  misunderstanding  concerning  the  ownership  of  a 
squirt  gun  which  the  class  of  1861  proposed  to  bury. 
The  burial  itself  was  intended  to  symbolize  amity  and 
friendship,  as  the  class  in  question  had  decided  to  dis- 
continue hazing.  The  juniors,  from  whom  the  sopho- 
mores had  stolen  the  squirt  gun,  tried  to  recover  it 
while  the  sophomores  were  at  dinner.  The  juniors 
broke  in  the  panels  of  the  door  and  cut  through  the 
plastering  of  the  room  which  contained  the  prize,  but 
were  held  at  bay  by  a  few  guards  with  pistols.  The 
sophomores,  hearing  the  noise,  attempted  to  rescue  their 
imperilled  guards  by  ascending  the  stairs.  The  juniors 
forthwith  chopped  away  the  stairs  and  armed  them- 
selves with  the  timbers.  A  series  of  hot  hand-to-hand 
encounters  ensued,  in  which  the  sophomores  were  vic- 
torious. They  steadily  fought  their  way  up  the  stairs, 
wrested  the  clubs  away  from  their  antagonists,  and 
dragged  them  by  their  legs  downstairs.  At  the  moment 
of  success  the  president  of  the  college  interfered. 
Many  sore  heads  and  bruised  limbs  resulted  from  this 
fray.  In  the  annals  of  every  American  college  there  are 
to  be  found  records  of  numerous  fights,  very  similar  in 
general  features  to  the  foregoing. 

The  regularly  organized  rush  was  not  without  its 
representatives  during  this  period,  particularly  in  the 
larger  colleges.  In  the  freshman-sophomore  rush  at 
Yale  each  party  formed  a  solid  mass  with  its  heaviest 

*  Cutting,  G.  A.     Student  Life  at  Amherst  College,  p.  131. 


104  STUDENT  LIFE  AND   CUSTOMS. 

men  in  front.  When  the  formation  was  completed  the 
mass  rushed  toward  its  opponents  and  endeavoured  to 
push  them  out  of  the  building,  or  sweep  them  from 
the  walks  and  street,  to  go  through  them,  break  up 
their  ranks  and  disorganize  them  generally.  The  rush 
itself  presents  a  scene  of  a  seething,  struggling  mass 
of  men,  shoving,  crushing,  trampling  one  another, 
snatching  caps,  tearing  clothes,  and  fighting  for  dear 
life  to  work  their  way  through  the  opposing  mass 
with  some  show  of  unbroken  ranks.  After  the  first 
onset  the  parties  draw  off  and  go  through  the  pro- 
cess again.  The  contest  usually  results  in  a  draw.  The 
"  banger  rush,^^  at  the  same  institution,  was  a  more  satis- 
factory affair.  The  freshmen  provide  themselves  with 
three  or  four  strong  canes  known  as  bangers,  which  they 
place  in  the  hands  of  their  strongest  members;  the  en- 
tire class  surrounds  the  champions  in  a  close,  compact 
mass,  which  the  sophomores  must  penetrate  and  wrest 
the  clubs  away.* 

The  University  of  Pennsylvania  developed  a  unique 
form  of  rushing,  known  as  the  ^^  bowl  fight.''  The 
sophomores  are  given  a  certain  number  of  minutes 
to  place  in  a  great  wooden  bowl,  which  they  have  pre- 
pared for  the  occasion,  the  low^est  honour-man  in  the 
freshman  class.  Should  the  freshmen  succeed  in 
holding  their  bowlman  from  the  hands  of  the  sopho- 
mores until  time  is  called,  they  then  struggle  to  break 
the  bowl.  The  bowl  fight  took  place  in  the  public 
street,  and  the  police  and  "  muckers,"  as  the  residents 
of  West  Philadelphia  were  called,  participated  in  the 
fray.     The  conflict  is  described  as  a  wild  scene. f 

*  Bagg,  L.  H.  Four  Years  at  Yale,  by  a  Graduate  of  '69,  pp. 
256,  257. 

f  Levin,  J.  S.  Undergraduate  Life  in  Thorpe's  Benjamin 
Franklin  and  the  University  of  Pennsylvania,  p.  408. 


STUDENT  LIFE  IN  REVOLUTIONARY  PERIOD.     105 

The  students  of  Princeton  have  likewise  shown  con- 
siderable originality  in  devising  modes  of  rivalry.  At 
the  beginning  of  a  term  it  is  customary  for  the  lower 
classes  to  placard  the  town  with  posters  taunting  their 
rivals  and  challenging  them  to  fight.  Some  of  these 
proclamations  are  large  enough  to  be  seen  at  a  distance 
of  five  miles.  The  opposition  must  tear  the  posters 
down,  and  numerous  rushes  result.  The  men  are  some- 
times impelled  against  each  other  with  such  force  that 
the  front  ranks  are  actually  lifted  in  the  air  by  the 
shock.  The  "  cane  spree  "  is  another  Princeton  insti- 
tution. The  freshmen  appear  in  front  of  the  post  office 
with  canes,  which  the  sophomores  "grab."  A  series 
of  contests  are  then  arranged  for,  the  juniors  acting  as 
seconds  for  the  freshmen,  and  the  seniors  acting  in  the 
came  capacity  for  the  sophomores.  The  seconds  ar- 
range conflicts  between  men  of  equal  strength  and 
weight.  The  men  are  sometimes  coached  for  weeks. 
On  the  first  moonlight  night  in  September  or  early  Oc- 
tober the  groups  come  together  for  a  series  of  encoun- 
ters. Statistics  of  the  canes  captured  are  collated.  If 
the  freshmen  win,  they  are  allowed  to  carry  canes.* 

As  to  the  general  utility  and  results  of  hazing  and 
rushing,  the  opinion  of  the  outside  public  and  the  stu- 
dent public  differed  materially.  To  the  student  the  dan- 
ger attendant  upon  interclass  rivalry  only  added  spice 
and  zest  to  college  life.  It  was  the  common  hardships 
and  persecutions  of  the  freshman  year  which  knit  the 
members  together  in  the  common  bond  of  fellowship, 
and  gave  that  air  of  adventure  and  risk  which  made  the 
college  something  more  sacred  than  merely  an  institu- 
tion for  instruction.  In  the  memoirs  and  reminiscences 
of  college  life  no  element  is  more  emphasized  than  the 

*  Alexander.  Undergraduate  Life  at  Princeton,  Scribner's 
Magazine,  vol.  xxi,  p.  663. 


106  STUDENT  LIFE  AND  CUSTOMS. 

charm  which  this  rough  apprenticeship  lent  to  under- 
graduate life.  The  ordinary  citizen  saw  the  problem  in 
an  altogether  different  light.  Usages  so  rough  that 
they  would  not  for  a  moment  be  tolerated  elsewhere 
continued  to  flourish  in  institutions  which  were  ex- 
pected to  send  forth  the  intellectual  leaders  of  the 
next  generation.  It  w^as  claimed  that  hazing  and  rush- 
ing brutalized  the  students.  Dark  stories  of  wrecked 
careers  and  ruined  constitutions  found  their  way  into 
print.  While  there  was  undoubtedly  much  of  exaggera- 
tion in  this  view,  there  were  certainly  many  facts  which 
supported  it.  Hazing  undoubtedly  terrorized  and  made 
miserable  the  lives  of  the  more  timid  freshmen.  It  is 
difficult  now  from  the  evidence  at  hand  to  estimate  just 
how  much  physical  injury  was  wrought  by  these  cus- 
toms, because  it  was  to  the  interest  of  all  parties  con- 
cerned in  such  affairs  to  keep  the  evidence  below  the 
surface.  If  we  take  the  stories  of  undergraduate  life 
which  have  come  down  to  us  as  the  criterion,  the  damage 
must  have  been  considerable.  The  writer,  however,  has 
been  able  to  collect  only  a  few  authentic  cases  of  serious 
injury.  Hitchcock  *  and  Peabody,f  in  their  reminis- 
cences, both  refer  to  cases  of  fatal  illness  occasioned  by 
hazing.* 

By  no  means  all  the  surplus  combative  energy  of 
the  undergraduate  was  devoted  to  internal  contests. 
The  governing  boards  of  the  colleges  were  often  a  target 
for  student  opposition.  The  rigid  discipline  of  the 
period  and  the  antagonism  between  faculty  and  students 
have  been  previously  referred  to,  but  the  active  reaction 
of  the  students  has  yet  to  be  treated  of.     In  the  follow- 

*  Hitchcock,  Edward.  Reminiscences  of  Amherst  College, 
p.  334. 

f  Peabody,  A.  P.     Harvard  Reminiscences,  p.  33. 

:}:  For  record  of  a  tragic  case,  see  Powell,  L.  P.,  History  of 
Education  in  Delaware,  p.  118. 


STUDENT  LIFE  IN  REVOLUTIONARY  PERIOD.     107 

ing  paragraphs  an  endeavour  will  be  made  to  present 
the  most  important  conditions. 

It  must  not  be  forgotten  that  the  national  manners 
of  a  half  century  ago  were  essentially  those  of  a  fron- 
tier people — rude,  boisterous,  and  over-assertive;  yet  we 
hardly  expect  to  find  that,  at  Harvard,  outrages  involv- 
ing not  only  a  large  destruction  of  property,  but  even 
peril  to  life — as,  for  instance,  the  blowing  up  of  public 
buildings  with  inhabited  rooms — occurred  every  year.* 
The  undergraduates  of  Yale  celebrated  Christmas  by 
smashing  the  windows  of  the  college  buildings  and 
barring  the  doors  so  fast  that  the  professors  were  com- 
pelled to  smash  them  in  with  an  axe.  Incidentally  the 
lamps  were  filled  with  water,  the  president's  house 
painted  red,  white,  and  blue,  and  a  cow  placed  on  the  top 
floor  of  the  dormitory,  f  Whether  at  home  or  among 
the  Northern  colleges,  the  Southern  students  possessed 
the  greatest  aptitude  for  violence  and  the  most  daring 
in  carrying  their  plans  into  execution.  The  chief  staple 
of  college  annals  in  the  Southern  colleges  was  furnished 
by  the  incidents  of  innumerable  petty  outrages  on  the 
part  of  the  students  which  the  faculty  attempted  (usu- 
ally without  result)  to  punish.  The  historian  of  Dela- 
ware College  records  numerous  expulsions  for  such  of- 
fences as  overturning  stoves,  breaking  windows,  thiev- 
ery, drunkenness,  and  personal  assault  on  members  of 
the  faculty,  t  The  students  of  South  Carolina  College 
seem  to  have  indulged  in  violence  more  systematically 
th^n  their  contemporaries.  At  night  it  was  a  com- 
mon occurrence  for  the  students  to  disguise  themselves, 
paint  their  faces  black,  and  ride  across  the  college  yard 

*  Peabody,  A.  P.     Harvard  Reminiscences,  p.  45. 
f  Steiner,  B.  C.     History  of  Education  in  Connecticut,  pp. 
163,  164. 

X  Powell,  L.  P.    History  of  Education  in  Delaware,  pp.  96,  97. 


108  STUDENT  LIFE  AND  CUSTOMS. 

shouting  and  sounding  horns.  To  get  drunk  and  dis- 
tribute free  whisky  at  the  well  on  the  college  campus 
and  go  roaming  around  breaking  windows  and  stoning 
professors'  houses  seem  to  have  been  quite  common  oc- 
currences. The  professors  were  sometimes  called  liars 
to  their  faces.* 

It  is  not  with  this  general  violence  that  we  are 
mainly  concerned  at  the  present  juncture,  but  with  the 
rebellions  which  occurred  from  time  to  time  against  the 
regulations  of  the  faculty.  These  rebellions  were  not 
usually  accompanied  by  acts  of  violence,  but  took  more 
the  form  of  strikes  or  boycotts.  One  of  the  most  com- 
mon grievances  on  the  part  of  the  students  was  in  the 
quality  and  quantity  of  food  served  in  the  college  com- 
mons. We  have  reliable  authority  that  the  rations  were 
unusually  bad.  One  graduate  considered  the  board  fur- 
nished at  Yale  as  absolutely  destructive  of  health.  The 
ordinary  breakfast  consisted  of  a  dish  known  as  "  slum," 
which  was  composed  of  the  remains  of  yesterday's  boiled 
salt  beef  and  potatoes,  hashed  up  and  fried  in  a  frying 
pan.f 

Another  frequent  cause  of  dissension  was  in  the  dis- 
tribution of  Commencement  honours.  It  is  difficult  for 
a  modern  student  to  realize  the  value  attached  to  a  part 
fifty  years  ago.  In  many  ways  it  was  considered  the 
test  of  a  man's  success  in  his  college  career.  It  was 
no  pleasant  occasion  when  the  disappointed  student  saw 
flowers  showered  upon  his  successful  rival,  while  he  was 
compelled  to  take  his  diploma  in  silence.  Since  the  ap- 
pointments depended  on  the  individual  judgment  of  the 
professors,  the  cry  of  injustice  could  always  be  raised. 
The  spirit  of  rebellion  is  therefore  rife  in  college  about 

*  Meriwether,  Colyer.  History  of  Education  in  South 
Carolina. 

f  Reminiscences  of  Scenes  and  Characters  in  College,  by  a 
Graduate  of  Yale,  Class  of  1831,  p.  117. 


STUDENT  LIFE  IN  REVOLUTIONARY  PERIOD.     109 

Commencement  time,  so  that  if  any  event  should  turn 
up  they  could  form  a  nucleus  of  opposition,  rebellious 
feeling  could  easily  crystallize  about  it.* 

Any  sudden  change  in  the  curriculum  or  methods 
of  instruction  might  be  the  occasion  of  a  revolt.  The 
students  were  obstinately  opposed  to  an  innovation 
which  might  signify  increased  study.  In  1790  a  pub- 
lic examination  was  instituted  at  Harvard.  The  stu- 
dents evinced  great  discontent,  because  it  was  not  with 
this  understanding  that  they  entered  college.  They 
considered  the  new  regulations  as  an  ex  post  facto  law. 
By  various  moves  they  endeavoured  to  prevent  the  ex- 
amination, even  to  the  extent  of  actual  violence.  It  was 
seven  years  before  the  difficulty  was  satisfactorily  dis- 
posed of.f 

We  have  the  notices  of  rebellions  in  the  different 
colonial  colleges,  going  as  far  back  as  1750.  Harvard 
was  early  subject  to  these  disturbances.  The  reJDellion 
of  1766  was  of  such  dimensions  that  it  interrupted  the 
regular  work  of  the  college  for  more  than  a  month.  It 
arose  because  of  dissatisfaction  with  the  commons.  An- 
other outbreak  took  place  in  1768,  and  led  to  the  expul- 
sion of  numerous  students.  J;  The  most  famous  upris- 
ing of  the  Harvard  undergraduates  occurred  in  1807. 
The  exercises  of  the  college  were  brought  to  a  stand- 
still. As  in  most  controversies  of  the  sort,  the  students 
were  nominally  beaten,  and  their  leaders  rusticated. 
Often,  however,  the  revolts  were  indirectly  effectual  in 
procuring  the  desired  result.  No  less  a  person  than  Dr. 
Channing,  the  great  leader  of  American  Unitarianism, 
was  expelled  from  college  for  participation  in  this  re- 
volt.    The  rebellion  of  1807  gave  rise  to  an  extensive 

*  Hitchcock,  E.     Reminiscences  of  Amherst  College,  p.  331. 

t  Hall,  p.  H.     College  Words  and  Customs,  p.  181. 

X  Bush,  H.  G.     Higher  Education  in  Massachusetts,  p.  59. 


110  STUDENT  LIFE  AND  CUSTOMS. 

literature  of  a  humorous  character.  One  of  the  most 
famous  products  was  a  mock-heroic  entitled  The  Ee- 
belliad  or  Rebellion  Poem,*  an  epic  written  in  five  can- 
tos, by  Samuel  Alden  and  Charles  Stetson,  which 
throws  valuable  light  on  some  of  the  customs  of  the 
times.  Another  prolonged  rebellion  at  Harvard  took 
place  in  1834,  during  which  property  was  destroyed,  f 

The  freshmen  and  sophomores  of  Yale  rebelled  in 
1819  because  of  the  quality  of  the  commons,  and  in 
1838  there  was  a  more  extensive  uprising,  known  as 
"The  Bread  and  Butter  Eebellion.''  The  students 
struck,  and  were  consequently  expelled,  but  readmitted 
to  college  upon  apologizing.  The  year  1830  marks  the 
outbreak  of  Yale's  most  formidable  insurrection.  This 
was  the  Conic  Section's  Rebellion,  and  was  caused  by  a 
change  in  the  method  of  teaching  mathematics.  The 
students  refused  to  demonstrate  'theorems  from  the 
blackboard,  preferring  their  text-books  instead.  The 
faculty  declined  to  accede  to  their  petition  for  change, 
and  a  large  portion  of  the  class  refused  to  recite.  Oth- 
ers signed  a  paper  indorsing  the  position  of  the  malcon- 
tents, and  prayed  the  faculty  to  punish  all  equally.  This 
suggestion  the  faculty  promptly  acted  on,  expelling 
forty-one  students  by  a  single  resolution.  The  rebels 
were  refused  admission  elsewhere  and  were  compelled 
to  come  to  terms.  The  outcome  of  this  controversy  put 
an  end  to  rebellions  at  Yale.]; 

In  the  colleges  of  the  Middle  and  Southern  States 
the  rebellions  were  more  riotous  and  violent  in  charac- 

*  Copy  in  Boston  Public  Library.  Another  interesting-  pub- 
lication of  an  anonymous  nature  was  published  under  the  title 
Don  Quixote  at  College,  or  the  History  of  the  Valiant  Adven- 
tures lately  achieved  by  the  Students  of  Harvard  University, 
Boston,  1807. 

f  Peabody,  A.  P.     Harvard  Reminiscences,  p.  84., 

X  Steiner,  B.  C.    History  of  Education  in  Connecticut,  p.  163. 


STUDENT  LIFE  IN  REVOLUTIONARY  PERIOD,     m 

ter.  At  Princeton  there  were  six  formidable  disturb- 
ances during  the  first  three  decades  of  the  present  cen- 
tury. In  1806  half  the  students  were  expelled,  and  the 
college  dealt  a  blow  which  impaired  its  usefulness  for 
years.  On  one  occasion  the  rioters  gained  full  pos- 
session of  the  college  buildings  and  defied  the  authori- 
ties.* At  South  Carolina  College  the  conomons  were  a 
source  of  endless  boycotts  and  rebellions  by  the  stu- 
dents. At  one  time  all  the  students  but  twenty-eight 
were  suspended  for  refusing  to  inform  on  one  of  their 
number.  Again,  sixty  were  suspended;  while,  at  one 
session,  seventy-seven  refused  to  return  because  the 
petition  on  their  favourite  grievance,  eating,  had  not 
been  granted. f  The  University  of  Alabama  presents 
much  the  same  record.  In  1837  the  entire  senior  class 
was  dismissed.  Eight  years  later,  all  the  students  were 
expelled  because  they  refused  to  swear  to  their  inno- 
cence in  a  certain  affair  and  thereby  implicate  the  guilty 
parties.  Another  attempt  was  made  to  enforce  this  ex- 
culpation law  in  1847.  Faculty  action  was  met  with  an 
organized  rebellion,  which  left  but  one  senior  and  two 
freshmen  in  attendance  at  recitations.  J 

WHiile,  in  some  instances,  the  entire  student  body 
participated  in  the  rebellion,  the  decision  was  made 
separately  by  each  class  in  its  own  meeting.  Many  of 
the  revolts  were  confined  to  one  or  two  classes.  It  was 
the  class  spirit  of  cohesion  which  made  organized  strikes 
and  boycotts  possible.  The  faculty  realized  that  the 
class  organization  furnished  the  support  to  outbreaks, 
and  its  attitude  toward  the  class  was  bitterly  hostile. 

*  Maclean,  J.  History  of  the  College  of  New  Jersey,  vol,  ii, 
pps.  72,  154,  167,  168,  253,  268. 

f  Meriwether,  Colyer.  History  of  Education  in  South  Caro- 
lina, p.  157. 

X  Clark,  W.  G.  History  of  Education  in  Alabama,  pp.  43, 
59.  65. 


112  STUDENT   LIFE  AND  CUSTOMS. 

The  laws  of  Harvard  prohibited  class  meetings  unless 
the  call  was  signed  by  three  responsible  students  and 
countersigned  by  the  president.  The  three  students 
were  held  responsible  for  all  violations  of  the  college 
statutes.  Union  College  considered  all  class  meetings 
held  without  license  as  unlawful  combinations,  and 
punished  them  as  such.*  Similar  rules  existed  in  the 
other  American  colleges;  at  Yale  any  form  of  class  or- 
ganization was  absolutely  prohibited. 

To  the  college  president  a  class  meeting  seemed 
capable  of  infinite  folly.  It  was,  to  a  certain  extent,  a 
mock  caucus  controlled  by  the  fermenting  element  of 
the  class.  The  more  judicious  members  stayed  away 
and  attended  to  their  private  affairs. f  "Under  class 
pressure  or  class  vote,  students  will  sign  a  petition  or 
incur  an  expense  they  do  not  believe  in,  or  cut  a  recita- 
tion they  desire  to  attend,  and  be  forced  into  relations 
and  conditions  they  condemn.  The  boldness  of  the  ill- 
disposed  and  reckless  is  not  met  with  an  equal  counter- 
courage  and  decision  of  the  good."  I  If  the  notion 
comes  to  prevail  that  the  class  can  have  any  influence 
whatever  in  shaping  faculty  action,  bad  results  are 
almost  certain  to  follow.  These  utterances  of  contem- 
porary college  presidents  express  in  a  modified  form  the 
ideas  which  dominated  faculty  action  in  the  last  gen- 
eration. 

Town  and  gown  rows  deserve  attention  in  the  dis- 
cussion of  the  sphere  of  the  class  in  student  life.  Such 
conflicts  between  the  students  and  the  outside  public 
were  by  no  means  as  important  or  numerous  in  Ameri- 
can seats  of  learning  as  in  the  mediaeval  or  modern  Eng- 

*  Hall,  B.  H.     College  Words  and  Customs,  p.  78. 
t  C.    K.    Adams.      Discipline  in   American   Colleges,    North 
American  Review,  vol.  cxlix,  p.  17. 

X  Bartlett,  S.  C.    College  Disturbances,  Forum,  vol.  iv,  p.  428. 


STUDENT  LIFE  IN  REVOLUTIONARY  PERIOD.     113 

lisli  universities.  The  antagonism  has  always  existed, 
and  left  evidences  of  its  presence  in  various  small  cus- 
toms. It  is  rather  in  the  old-time  academies  that  we 
must  look  for  the  town  and  gown  spirit  in  its  most 
marked  manifestations.  Most  American  colleges  were 
situated  in  towns  too  small  to  threaten  the  supremacy  of 
the  students.  Serious  and  well-developed  contests  of 
this  character  are  found  only  where  a  strong  alien  ele- 
ment existed  in  the  town  itself.  Thus,  the  Yager  fights 
at  Bowdoin  were  almost  entirely  with  the  lumbermen 
in  the  spring  of  the  year.*  At  New  Haven  the  sailors 
were  commonly  the  aggressive  element.  Here  the  con- 
flicts between  the  townsmen  and  students  were  unusu- 
ally frequent  and  severe,  which  led  to  the  growth  of  a 
peculiar  institution,  "  The  Bully  Club."  In  the  early 
fights  with  the  sailors  a  huge  club  was  captured.  Each 
year  this  club  was  bestowed  on  the  strongest  man  in  the 
senior  class,  who  henceforth  acted  as  class  president, 
and  led  the  students  in  conflicts  with  the  town.  In  ad- 
dition to  the  major  bully,  or  president,  there  was  also  a 
minor  bully,  usually  a  small  man,  who  acted  as  vice- 
president.  This  curious  institution  came  to  an  end 
in  a  fight  at  a  Commencement  procession  in  1840, 
caused  by  the  appearance  of  two  leaders,  one  claiming 
the  old  name  of  bully,  the  other  rejoicing  in  the  more 
refined  title  ^f  marshal,  f  During  the  existence  of  the 
Bully  Club,  at  least  one  pitched  fight  a  year  took  place 
between  the  classmen  and  the  "  townies."  For  the  most 
threatening  exhibition,  we  must  pass  to  a  later  period. 
In  the  great  riot  of  the  townsmen  in  1854  the  students 
were  compelled  to  force  their  way  through  a  hostile 
mob.  A  student  stabbed  one  of  the  rioters,  which  so 
angered  the  to^Tismen  that  they  tried  to  batter  down 

*  Hall,  B.  H.     College  Words  and  Customs,  p.  504. 
f  B&gg,  Lyman  H.    The  Bully  Club,  Yale  Book,  vol.  ii,  p.  460. 
8 


114:  STUDENT  LIFE  AND  CUSTOMS. 

the  college  buildings  with  an  old  cannon.  The  police 
succeeded  in  spiking  this  and  in  dispersing  the  mob 
before  any  serious  damage  was  done.* 

Another  evidence  of  the  dominancy  of  the  class  as 
a  social  unit  is  seen  in  the  number  of  customs  and  cere- 
monials which  clustered  about  it.  While  chiefly  hu- 
morous in  character,  these  customs  were  not  without 
their  effect  in  giving  undergraduate  life  a  certain 
unique  charm  and  individuality.  Many  of  them  dealt 
with  the  relationship  between  the  classes.  For  in- 
stance, freshmen  were  everywhere  debarred  from  carry- 
ing canes  and  wearing  beaver  hats.  A  curious  tradition 
at  Yale  prevented  them  from  sitting  on  the  college 
fence  with  the  upper  classmen  until  after  they  had 
beaten  the  Harvard  freshmen  at  baseball. f  The  sen- 
iors alone  might  relax  themselves  by  spinning  tops, 
playing  marbles,  rolling  hoops,  or  indulging  in  an  ex- 
citing game  of  "  nigger-baby." 

In  a  number  of  institutions  the  close  of  the  fresh- 
man year  of  apprenticeship  was  celebrated  in  an  appro- 
priate manner.  The  chapel  bell  was  rung  from  mid- 
night until  the  rope  was  worn  out.  This  signified  that 
the  freshmen  had  lost  their  rust.  The  upper  classes 
were  diverted  by  a  display  of  fireworks  and  enlivened  by 
a  serenade  of  discordant  sounds  made  to  issue  from  tin 
kettledrums,  horse  fiddles,  trumpets,  and  horns.  At  the 
beginning  of  their  college  career  at  Hamilton  the 
freshmen  were  invested  with  the  insignia  of  their  re- 
sponsibility. The  sophomores  present  a  heavy  cudgel, 
six  feet  long,  of  black  walnut,  and  bound  with  brass; 
inscribed  on  a  silver  plate  are  the  words  ^^  Freshman 
Club."  The  club  becomes  the  property  of  the  one  who 
can  hold  it  out  at  arm's  length  the  longest  time,  who 

*  Steiner,  B.  C.    History  of  Education  in  Connecticut,  p.  201. 
flbid. 


STUDENT  LIFE  IX  REVOLUTIONARY  PERIOD.     115 

henceforth  acts  as  a  leader.  The  freshmen  form  a  pro- 
cession and  try  the  virtues  of  the  club  on  the  chapel 
door.* 

The  personal  peculiarities  of  the  members  were 
made  the  occasion  of  curious  class  customs.  At  Har- 
vard the  laziest  man  in  the  class  received  a  leather 
medal  from  his  classmates,  while  the  ugliest  man  was 
consoled  with  a  jackknife.  At  the  University  of  In- 
diana it  was  the  greatest  liar  who  received  the  jack- 
knife,  f  Another  Harvard  custom  gave  the  best  mathe- 
matician in  a  class  a  large  slate,  which  on  leaving  col- 
lege was  presented  to  the  best  mathematician  in  the 
class  below,  who  in  his  turn  passed  it  on  to  the  next 
class.  The  class  of  1848  at  Amherst  presented  one  of 
its  members  who  had  been  newly  married  with  a  crib,  a 
family  Bible,  and  a  copy  of  Mrs.  Ellis's  Treatise  on 
Domestic  Economy.  x\nother  ilmherst  class  gave  its 
smallest  member  a  new  beaver  hat  and  arranged  all 
elaborate  presentation  ceremony.  J  It  was  quite  a  com- 
mon custom  for  the  senior  class  to  set  aside  a  cer- 
tain sum  of  money  for  the  first  legitimate  child  born 
to  any  member  after  graduation.  The  money  was  ex- 
pended for  a  silver  cup,  which  was  presented  to  the  child 
at  one  of  the  annual  class  dinners.  In  one  instance  a 
baby  jumper  was  voted  to  the  second  member  of  the 
class  thus  favoured."^ 

A  strong  tendency  toward  burlesque  is  observable 
in  niany  student  customs.  One  of  the  most  widespread 
forms  has  been  that  of  mock  programmes  known  as 
rakes  and  bogies.  The  bogie  was  usually  a  caricature  of 
some  programme  of  an  entertainment  by  another  class. 
They  were  always  satirical,  touching  upon  the  personal 

*  Hall,  B.  H.     College  Words  and  Customs,  p.  399. 
f  Ibid.,  p.  267. 

X  Cutting,  George  A.     Student  Life  at  Amherst,  p.  121. 
»  Hall,  B.  H.     College  Words  and  Customs,  p.  68. 


116  STUDENT  LIFE  AND  CUSTOMS. 

foibles  of  the  opposition;  usually  they  were  scurrilous 
and  abusive,  and  often  vulgar  and  obscene.  The  col- 
lege authorities  universally  forbade  the  publication  of 
bogies,  and  so  they  were  distributed  and  printed  in 
secret.  The  detective  efficiency  of  a  college  faculty  was 
always  measured  by  its  skill  in  discovering  the  authors. 
When  detected,  the  guilty  parties  were  at  once  ex- 
pelled.* 

A  more  healthful  form  of  amusement  was  found  in 
burlesque  entertainments,  which  the  lower  classes  or- 
ganized in  derision  of  the  solemn  ceremonial  of  junior 
exhibitions  and  Commencement  week.  Like  the  mock 
programmes,  the  mock  entertainments  dealt  exclusively 
in  satire  of  a  personal  character.  The  humour  was  usu- 
ally broad,  with  an  inclination  to  coarseness.  A  med- 
dlesome person  would  be  assigned  an  oration  on  "  The 
Busybody  ";  a  poor  punster  would  speak  on  "  Diseased 
Eazors."  Two  persons  not  noted  for  personal  cleanli- 
ness would  discuss  the  differences  between  original  and 
alluvial  soils.  A  dabbler  in  natural  history  would  read 
an  essay  on  "  The  Humbug."  Three  persons,  one  very 
tall,  one  very  broad,  and  the  third  very  fat,  would  hold 
a  conference  on  length,  breadth,  and  thickness,  f  The 
presentation  of  the  Wooden  Spoon  at  Yale  was  the  most 
celebrated  of  the  mock  ceremonials.  A  wooden  spoon 
was  given  the  man  who  took  lowest  place  on  the  regular 
junior  programme.  The  exhibition  at  one  time  was 
given  in  secret,  and  students  disguised  as  Indians  ex- 
cluded the  faculty  and  general  public.  The  poorest 
scholar  in  the  class  was  chosen  master  of  ceremonies. 
The  witty  and  clever  members  burlesque  the  usual  ora- 

*  Alexander,  Undergraduate  Life  at  Princeton,  Scribner's 
Magazine,  vol.  xxi,  p.  678  ;  Start,  A.  B.,  History  of  Tufts  Col- 
lege, p.  45  ;  Cutting,  G.  A.,  Student  Life  at  Amherst,  p.  131. 

t  Hall,  B.  H.     College  Words  and  Customs,  p.  325. 


STUDENT  LIFE  IN  REVOLUTIONARY  PERIOD.     117 

tions,  dissertations,  and  disputes,  and  keep  the  audience 
in  a  perpetual  roar  of  laughter.  The  presentation  of  an 
expensive  and  elaborately  carved  wooden  spoon  to  the 
hero  of  the  occasion,  forms  the  culminating  point  in  the 
entertainment.* 

The  Navy  Club  at  Harvard  deserves  the  credit  of  be- 
ing the  most  original  invention  of  this  description  yet 
recorded.  It  was  designed  to  furnish  consolation  to 
those  who  had  received  no  Commencement  parts,  and 
the  men  most  in  disfavour  with  the  faculty  received 
the  highest  appointments.  The  student  who  had  been 
expelled  from  college  the  greatest  number  of  times  be- 
came Lord  High  Admiral.  The  rear  admiral  was  the 
laziest  man  in  the  class.  The  most  profane  member  was 
chosen  chaplain,  and  the  most  obscene,  boatswain.  The 
club  commonly  procured  a  large  schooner,  which  was 
anchored  in  the  Charles  Eiver.  The  Lord  High  Admiral 
occupied  the  quarter-deck  and  ruled  with  despotic  au- 
thority. He  could  commonly  be  seen  reclining  on  a 
couch  attended  by  two  subordinates,  who  made  his  slum- 
bers pleasant  by  guarding  his  sacred  person  from  the 
mosquitoes.  The  operations  of  the  i^avy  Club  closed 
with  an  excursion  down  Boston  Harbour.  The  vessel 
was  well  stocked  with  certain  kinds  of  provisions,  which, 
when  afforded  assistance  from  the  stores  of  Old  Ocean, 
formed  the  requisites  of  a  grand  clambake  on  the  shores 
of  Cape  Cod.  The  return  to  Cambridge  was  marked  by 
no, little  noise,  disorder,  and  dissipation.! 

The  burning  of  a  text-book  at  the  close  of  the  term's 
study  w^as  another  widespread  ceremony.  The  usual 
mock  programme  of  sermons,  poems,  and  orations 
opened  the  celebration.  Then  a  large  coffin  was  placed 
before  the  altar,  within  which  lay  the  veritable  Euclid, 

*  Hall,  B.  H.    College  Words  and  Customs,  p.  495. 
flbid.,  p.  331. 


118  STUDENT  LIFE  AND  CUSTOMS. 

arranged  in  a  becoming  winding  sheet,  the  body  being 
composed  of  combustibles,  and  thoroughly  saturated 
with  turpentine.  After  midnight,  the  company  leave 
the  hall,  form  an  orderly  array,  bearing  the  coffin  in 
their  midst.  Those  who  composed  the  procession  were 
arrayed  in  disguises  to  avoid  detection,  and  bore  a  full 
complement  of  brilliant  torches.  The  skeleton  himself, 
bearing  a  torch,  might  be  seen  dancing  in  the  midst,  to 
the  great  amusement  of  the  spectators.  The  concluding 
exercises  were  a  mile  away.  These  consisted  in  walking 
over  the  coffin,  thus  surmounting  the  difficulties  of  the 
author,  boring  a  hole  through  the  copy  of  Euclid  with 
a  hot  iron,  so  that  the  class  might  see  through  it,  and 
finally  burning  it  upon  a  funeral  pyre  to  throw  light 
upon  it.  At  Trinity  College,  Conic  Sections  was  sub- 
stituted; at  Hamilton  College,  Convivium;  and  at  the 
University  of  the  City  of  New  York,  Zumpt's  Latin 
Grammar.* 

It  must  not  be  thought  that  all  the  class  ceremonials 
and  occasions  were  of  this  burlesque  character.  Not  to 
speak  of  junior  exhibitions,  the  Commencement  itself 
partook  largely  of  the  nature  of  a  class  celebration.  The 
old-time  Commencement  Day  was  a  great  public  holi- 
day. In  colonial  days  the  governors  and  legislators  at- 
tended with  a  great  retinue  from  a  distance.  In  popu- 
larity it  equalled  the  county  fair  and  Western  camp 
meeting.  At  Cambridge  the  Common  was  covered  with 
drinking  -  stands,  dancing  -  booths,  and  mountebank 
shows  during  Commencement  week.  To  the  senior 
class  the  occasion  seemed  an  important  crisis  in  their 
careers.  It  was  Commencement  Day  that  determined 
the  success  or  failure  of  a  college  career.  In  the  col- 
lege stories  of  the  time  the  hard-working  hero,  who 
has  shunned  the  temptations  of  college  life,  delivers 

*  Hall,  B.  H.    College  Words  and  Customs,  p.  44. 


STUDENT  LIFE  IN  REVOLUTIONARY  PERIOD.     119 

the  valedictory,  honoured  by  the  world  and  envied  by 
his  companions.  He  receives  showers  of  bouquets  from 
the  galleries,  and  eventually  wins  the  heroine;  while 
his  rival,  the  villain,  curses  his  own  laziness  and  neg- 
lect. The  importance  of  Commencement  was  so  great 
because  it  was  the  single  social  event  of  the  college  year. 

Commencement  week  always  began  with  the  bacca- 
laureate sermon  delivered  in  the  college  chapel,  where 
sage  words  of  advice  were  heard  by  the  class,  sobered  by 
the  thought  of  going  to  battle  with  the  world.  With 
the  exercises  of  Commencement  Day  the  class  as  an  or- 
ganization had  little  to  do,  their  energy  finding  free  play 
in  class  day.  After  the  formal  programme,  with  its  odes 
and  speeches  of  a  somewhat  stereotyped  order  was  com- 
pleted, and  the  class  history,  abounding  in  sly  allusions 
and  good-natured  characterizations,  had  been  read,  the 
class  was  free  to  indulge  in  the  original  features  of  the 
day.  There  was  a  great  variety  of  these.  A  common 
form  of  memorial  consisted  in  planting  a  class  tree.  At 
Yale  long  clay  pipes  were  smoked,  which  were  after- 
ward presented  to  their  lady  friends.*  At  Amherst  the 
class  made  the  round  of  recitation  rooms,  stopping  in 
each  to  caricature  the  peculiarities  of  its  owner.  After- 
ward the  faculty  were  serenaded.  The  class  held  its 
last  meeting  in  the  banquet  hall  at  midnight.  At  this 
time  were  divulged  the  tender  secrets  of  the  heart  until 
then  unkno\\Ti,  and  here,  too,  past  estrangements  were 
forgotten,  and  the  members  pledged  each  other  to  eter- 
nal friendship.! 

Before  completing  our  picture  of  the  class  at  this 
period  mention  must  be  made  of  the  numerous  societies 

*  Steiner.  B.  C.     History  of  Education  in  Connecticut,  p.  198. 

t  CuttinsT,  George  A.  Student  Life  at  Amherst.  Also  Levin, 
J  S.  University  Undergraduate  Life  in  F.  N.  Thorpe's  Benja- 
min Franklin  and  the  University  of  Pennsylvania,  pp.  408,  409. 


120  STUDENT  LIFE  AND   CUSTOMS. 

founded  on  the  class  as  a  basis  :  at  first,  merely  an  in- 
formal group  of  friends  of  the  same  year;  after  a  time,  a 
society  would  be  organized,  having  for  its  principle  some 
whim  or  fantastical  notion.  Such  clubs  would  natu- 
rally cease  to  exist  after  the  graduation  of  the  class.  In- 
formation concerning  organizations  of  this  class  is 
somewhat  scanty,  but  we  have  been  able  to  collect  no- 
tices of  a  number  of  typical  societies.  Such,  for  in- 
stance, were  the  Philopogonia  and  Mu  Kappa  Sigma  of 
Amherst.  Philopogonia  *  was  formed  by  an  agreement 
of  the  class  of  1852  to  abstain  from  shaving  for  an  entire 
term.  The  razors  of  the  members  were  sealed  up,  de- 
posited under  lock  and  key,  and  a  committee  of  vigi- 
lance appointed  to  see  that  no  one  broke  the  rule.  At 
the  end  of  the  term  a  grand  supper  was  held.  The 
member  having  the  longest  beard  delivered  an  oration, 
and  the  man  having  the  next  longest  a  poem.f 

The  Mu  Kappa  Sigma  Society  appeared  in  1857. 
Its  meetings  came  on  Saturady  night,  after  which  some 
act  of  rowdyism  was  perpetrated.  The  notice  of  meet- 
ings was  adorned  with  a  woodcut  from  a  comic  almanac 
or  illustrated  newspaper,  representing  scenes  of  dissipa- 
tion and  violence.  The  notice  likewise  contained  two 
or  three  lines  of  cipher  indicating  to  the  initiated  the 
special  object  of  the  meeting.  The  students  at  large 
taxed  their  ingenuity  with  fruitless  endeavours  to  de- 
cipher these  cabalistic  signs.  It  was  later  discovered 
that  the  entire  affair  was  simply  a  burlesque  on  secret 
societies;  the  signs  were  meaningless.  The  plan  origi- 
nated in  a  meeting  of  a  few  friends  every  Saturday 
night,  held  to  make  molasses  candy.  It  was  known  as 
the  Molasses  Candy  Society. 

Another  group  of  friends  fitted  up  an  underground 

*  Philo-pogon,  or  love-beard. 

f  Cutting,  G.  A.    Student  Life  at  Amherst,  p.  125. 


STUDENT  LIFE  IN  REVOLUTIONARY  PERIOD.    121 

apartment  with  culinary  features  which  were  said  to  be 
quite  complete.  The  entrance  was  concealed  by  a  trap- 
door, and  so  secret  were  its  proceedings  that  for  years 
their  midnight  banquets  escaped  the  notice  of  vigilant 
officials.  The  room  was  at  last  discovered  as  a  conse- 
quence of  the  trapdoor  being  accidentally  left  open. 
The  wine  kegs,  chicken  bones,  and  bottles  found  among 
the  debris  told  wonderful  tales.  The  society  was  called, 
by  its  initials,  the  H.  E.  0.  T.  T.,  which  being  inter- 
preted would  read,  "  Ho,  Every  One  That  Thirsteth."  * 
An  organization  of  a  more  serious  purport  was  the 
Tt  Kpi,  inaugurated  in  1834,  by  the  members  of  the  class 
of  1837.  It  aimed  at  social,  literary,  and  religious 
improvement,  but  was  secret  in  all  its  proceedings. 
Some  one  of  the  members  must  be  absent  from  each 
meeting.  The  members  present  were  then  compelled  to 
state  every  fault  of  the  absent  member,  social,  literary, 
and  moral.  These  criticisms  were  soon  afterward  pre- 
sented in  writing  to  the  absent  member,  who  at  the  next 
meeting  must  make  his  defence,  if  he  had  any,  to  the 
charges — then  he  might  join  in  the  benevolent  attempt 
to  criticise  his  now  absent  successor,  f 

It  must  be  confessed  that  predatory  clubs  outnum- 
bered the  more  innocent  forms  of  association.  The 
"  Eanters  "  of  Bethany  College,  Virginia,  were  a  typical 
predatory  band.  They  committed  all  sorts  of  rascality 
and  mischievousness,  both  on  their  fellow-students  and 
on  the  neighbouring  inhabitants.  The  company  was 
commanded  by  one  selected  from  the  party  called  Grand 
Ranter,  whose  orders  must  be  obeyed,  under  the  penalty 
of  expulsion  of  the  person  offending.  Among  the  tricks 
commonly  indulged  in  were  those  of  robbing  hen  and 
turkey  roosts,  and  feasting  on  the  fruits  of  their  labour; 

*  Cutting,  G.  A.     Student  Life  at  Amherst,  p.  124. 
t  Ibid.,  p.  65. 


122  STUDENT  LIFE  AND  CUSTOMS. 

of  stealing  from  the  neighbours  their  horses  to  enjoy 
the  pleasure  of  midnight  rides.  If  detected,  or  betrayed 
to  the  faculty,  they  revenge  themselves  by  shaving  the 
manes  and  tails  of  the  favourite  horse  belonging  to 
the  person  informing.*  Similar  bands  were  known  as 
"  Moonlight  Eangers  "  at  Jefferson  College,  Pennsyl- 
vania, and  as  "  Annarugians  "  at  Centre  Callege,  Ken- 
tucky, f 

The  Pandowdy  Band  of  Bowdoin  was  a  company  of 
students  who  devoted  themselves  to  serenading  unpopu- 
lar members  of  the  faculty.  "  It  had  no  regular  time 
and  place  of  meeting,  and  the  number  of  performers 
varied  from  half  a  dozen  or  less  to  fifty.  The  instru- 
ments are  commonly  horns,  drums,  tin  kettles,  tongs, 
shovels,  triangles,  pumpkin  vines,  etc.  It  is  regarded 
on  all  hands  as  an  unequivocal  expression  of  the  feelings 
of  the  students.  It  corresponds  to  Calliathump  of 
Yale,  and  horn-blowing  at  Princeton."  J 

The  activity  of  the  class  did  not  cease  with  gradua- 
tions ;  reunions  were  held  at  yearly  intervals.  Most 
important  were  the  triennial  and  decennial  celebra- 
tions. These  meetings  were  a  much  more  vital  bond 
of  union  with  the  college  than  the  Alumni  Association, 
or  local  College  Club.  There  is  no  more  pathetic  and 
yet  inspiring  sight  in  American  college  life  than  the 
return  of  a  few  bent  men  to  their  Alma  Mater  on  the 
fiftieth  anniversary  of  their  graduation.  The  class  sec- 
retary kept  a  record  of  the  doings  of  the  members,  and 
from  time  to  time  issued  a  volume  containing  an  ac- 
count of  the  latest  reunion,  with  songs  and  speeches. 
The  most  useful  portion  of  the  work  is  the  biographical 
record  of  the  different  members,  stating  their  profes- 
sions, publications,  degrees  and  offices,  the  time  and 

*  Hall,  B.  H.     College  Words  and  Customs,  p.  385. 
t  Ibid.,  pp.  10,  326.  t  Ibid.,  p.  342. 


STUDENT  LIFE  IN  REVOLUTIONARY  PERIOD.    123 

place  of  their  marriage,  and  the  names  of  their  chil- 
dren.* Some  of  the  older  colleges  have  hundreds  of 
volumes  of  these  records — a  striking  testimonial  to  the 
hold  which  the  old  class  organization  maintained  of  its 
members. 

From  a  pedagogical  standpoint  no  discussion  of  the 
class  can  be  adequate  which  fails  to  emphasize  the  close- 
ness of  the  bond  which  knit  the  members  together. 
When  young  men  are  perforce  treading  side  by  side  the 
same  paths,  working  out  together  the  same  difficulties, 
playing  the  same  games  in  the  same  hours,  there  in- 
evitably grows  up  an  intimac}^  not  readily  possible  under 
other  circumstances.  The  conditions  favoured  the  cre- 
ation of  an  esprit  du  corps  seldom  equalled.  The  ap- 
plause won  by  the  leading  members  was  regarded  by 
peculiar  complacency  by  each  member  as  belonging  to 
the  common  fund  of  class  credit.  After  graduation,  the 
glory  won  by  the  great  men  of  the  class  gave  a  certain 
jjrestige  to  the  class  itself.  Men  speak  with  pride  of 
belonging  to  the  class  of  1837  at  Yale,  or  the  class  of 
1877  at  Harvard. f  Each  class  had  its  individuality, 
and  was  thought  by  its  members  to  be  the  one  class  in 
college.  This  collective  pride  and  feeling  of  achieve- 
ment was  in  itself  a  good. 

But  the  class  esprit  du  corps  performed  another 
service;  it  furnished  an  energetic  unit  for  the  forma- 
tion and  diffusion  of  public  opinion.  We  have  the  word 
of  President  Porter,  of  Yale,  that  the  class  system  was 
essential  to  an  efficient  college  life.  "  I  indeed  do  not 
see  how  an  American  college  without  fixed  classes  could 
have  an  efficient  common  life.     In  the  American  col- 

*  Bagg,  L.  H.  Four  Years  at  Yale,  by  a  Graduate  of  '69, 
p  540. 

f  Reminiscences  of  Scenes  and  Characters  in  College,  by  a 
Graduate  of  1821,  p.  194. 


124  STUDENT  LIFE  AND  CUSTOMS. 

lege  the  class  is  the  charmed  circle,  within  which  the 
individual  contracts  most  of  his  friendships  and  finds 
his  fondest  and  most  cherished  association.  The  senti- 
ment of  his  class  is  that  which  influences  him  most 
efficiently,  and  is  to  him  often  the  only  atmosphere 
of  his  social  life."  *  There  was  a  general  impression 
that  a  strong  class  feeling  produced  a  strong  college 
feeling,  and  created  a  habit  of  loyalty  which  stuck  to 
a  man.f 

The  enforced  intimacy  of  the  four  years'  class  asso- 
ciation resulted  in  the  cultivation  of  a  certain  practical 
judgment  of  men.  In  the  old  days  about  three  fifths 
of  the  talk  of  the  undergraduates  was  about  one  an- 
other. It  began  when  the  sub-freshmen  met  to  be  ex- 
amined for  admission,  and  continued  until  graduation. 
The  amount  of  attention  which  men  paid  to  one  another, 
and  the  time  devoted  to  estimating  one  another's  social, 
moral,  and  intellectual  qualities,  and  discussing  details 
of  conduct,  were  extraordinary.  It  can  not  be  said  that 
every  man  in  the  class  knew  every  other  man,  but  the 
apparatu-s  for  bringing  men  of  the  same  class  together 
was  efficient,  and  it  usually  did  happen  that  by  the  end 
of  the  freshman  year  nearly  every  man  believed  he 
knewj  or  knew  about,  every  man  in  his  class  whose  ac- 
quaintance it  seemed  likely  to  be  worth  his  while  to 
make.  Men  were  misjudged,  misunderstood,  overesti- 
mated, and  underestimated,  but  acquaintance  was  very 
general  and  constantly  ripening,  and  estimates  were  in  a 
constant  state  of  revision  and  reconstruction.;}; 

Such  relations  were  favourable  to  the  formation  of 
warm  friendships.     As  the  colleges  have  grown  larger, 

*  Porter,  N.  The  American  College  and  the  American  Pub- 
lic, pp.  191,  192. 

t  Wallace,  G.  R.     Princeton  Sketches,  p.  187. 

t  Martin,  E.  S.  Undergraduate  Life  at  Harvard,  Scribner's 
Magazine,  vol.  xxi,  p.  535. 


STUDENT  LIFE  IX  REVOLUTIONARY  PERIOD.     125 

and  the  pursuits  of  the  students  more  various,  the  op- 
portunities have  become  rarer  for  that  close  intercourse 
in  which  are  formed  those  intimate  personal  ties  for 
which  maturer  life  affords  no  equivalent.* 

The  four  years  of  the  old  college  life  produced  a 
striking  and  unusually  happy  effect  on  the  students 
themselves.  At  the  end  of  four  years  they  have  been 
a  good  deal  modified,  externally  and  internally,  and  for 
the  better,  by  contact  with  each  other.  The  rads  have 
become  more  gentle,  the  effeminate  more  manly,  the 
timid  more  free  and  unembarrassed,  and  the  conceited 
more  modest.  And  this  effect  is  greater  and  happier  in 
proportion  as  a  class  is  more  numerous  and  gathered 
from  a  wider  range  of  country. 

§  2.  The  Debating  Society  in  the  Revolutionary 
Period. 

It  was  the  wave  of  political  interest  produced  by  the 
Revolution  which  made  the  debating  society  for  fifty 
years  the  strongest  force  in  American  student  life.  Few 
periods  in  history  show  such  an  exclusive  absorption  in 
politics  and  such  a  high  level  of  political  intelligence. 
Politics  was  the  chief  culture  interest  of  the  people,  and 
absorbed  nearly  all  the  ability  of  the  country.  This 
political  fervour,  combined  with  an  exuberant  American- 
ism, had  its  absurd  side  in  the  excessive  sensibility  to 
foreign  criticism,  and  in  the  prevalence  of  high-sound- 
ing phrases  and  bombast;  f  but  below  the  surface  there 
existed  a  firm  faith  in  democracy  as  a  social  force,  and 
in  the  world-mission  of  America  wdiich  has  since  passed 
away. 

*  Story,  Moorfiekl.     Harvard  in  the  Sixties,  p.  8. 
f  See  the  volumes  of  Captain  Basil  Hall  and  Mrs.  Trollope 
for  a  description  of  this  side  of  American  life. 


126  STUDENT  LIFE  AND  CUSTOMS. 

An  ideal  of  such  universality  and  definiteness  was 
not  slow  in  affecting  the  youth  of  the  country;  and 
with  the  coming  of  peace  and  the  establishment  of  new 
colleges,  one  notes  in  all  sections  of  the  country  the  rise 
of  strong  debating  clubs.  Such  were  the  Athena3an 
and  Pincinian  Societies  of  Bowdoin;  the  Social  Friends 
and  United  Fraternity  of  Dartmouth;  the  Athenian  and 
Alexandrian  Societies  at  Amherst;  the  Philogian  and 
Philotechnian  Societies  at  Williams;  the  United  Broth- 
ers and  Philermenians  at  Brown;  the  Philorhetoreans 
and  Peithologians  of  Wesleyan;  the  Philolexian  and 
Peithologian  of  Columbia;  the  Zelosophic  and  Philoma- 
thean  of  Pennsylvania;  the  Washington  and  Jefferson 
of  the  University  of  Virginia;  and  the  Dialectic  and 
Philanthropic  of  the  University  of  North  Carolina.  To 
these  must  be  added  the  three  (formerly  two)  socie- 
ties of  Yale,  the  one  at  Harvard,  and  the  two  Halls  of 
Princeton,  which  were  mentioned  in  an  earlier  chap- 
ter. It  is  worthy  of  note  that  with  two  exceptions 
(Yale  and  Harvard)  just  two  prominent  societies  were 
found  in  each  college,  which  is  a  strong  testimonial  to 
the  strength  of  the  competitive  principle. 

The  mere  annals  of  any  of  these  organizations  are 
devoid  of  general  interest  or  significance,  and  consist  of 
the  records  of  election  contests,  petty  rivalry,  and  the 
monotonous  succession  of  useful  but  commonplace  exer- 
cises. Consequently,  in  the  following  pages  we  shall 
aim  only  to  present  the  salient  features  during  the 
period  of  greatest  prosperity,  which  is,  roughly  speak- 
ing, from  1790  to  1840.  The  different  phases  of  society 
activity  will  be  treated  in  the  following  order:  internal 
management,  literary  exercises,  general  influence,  de- 
cline, and  value  as  a  means  of  culture. 

The  structure  of  the  clubs  was  simple  and  needs 
little  explanation.  There  always  existed  a  written  con- 
stitution or  fundamental  law.     The  constitutions  of  dif- 


STUDENT  LIFE  IN  REVOLUTIONARY  PERIOD.    127 

ferent  societies  scattered  throughout  the  country  were 
similar.  The  officers  provided  for  Avere  those  common 
to  the  average  voluntary  society:  president,  vice-presi- 
dent, treasurer,  secretary,  and  vice-secretary,  besides  li- 
brarian, scribe,  senior  critic,  and  junior  critic.  At  Yale 
provision  was  made  for  professors,  chosen  from  the 
members  who  were  to  deliver  one  lecture  a  term  on  such 
subjects  as  history,  composition,  oratory,  natural  phi- 
losophy, mathematics,  and  geography.  In  regard  to  the 
division  of  labour,  the  debating  society  was  a  wor- 
thy rival  of  the  early  town  meeting.  At  one  election 
of  Linonia  (Yale),  forty-seven  different  officials  were 
chosen.'*' 

The  majority  of  the  positions  were  sinecures,  mere 
harmless  attempts  to  satisfy  the  officeholding  instinct. 
The  society  presidency,  however,  was  an  important  col- 
lege honour  and  eagerly  competed  for.  At  Amherst  the 
elections  were  as  hotly  contested  as  those  of  the  State 
and  national  governments.  All  the  arts  of  the  politician 
were  brought  into  play,f  including,  on  some  occasions, 
wine  and  brandy.  J;  According  to  Bristed,*  the  elec- 
tions gave  rise  to  an  intriguing  factious  spirit  unwor- 
thy of  the  generous  instincts  of  youth.  Such  elections 
were  considered  an  admirable  preparation  for  practical 
politics. 

Another  important  element  was  the  rivalry  between 
the  two  societies  which  divided  student  interest.  They 
competed  in  the  selection  of  members,  in  the  size  of 
their  libraries,  and  in  the  distribution  of  college  hon- 
ours.    The  feeling  was  usually  one  of  bitter  antagonism 

*  Yale  Book,  vol.  ii,  p.  317. 

f  Hitchcock,  Edward.  Reminiscences  of  Amherst  College, 
p.  326. 

X  Durfee,  C.  A.     History  of  Williams  College,  p.  167. 

*  Bristed,  C.  A.  Five  Years  at  an  English  University,  last 
chapter. 


128  STUDENT  LIFE  AND  CUSTOMS. 

and  jealousy.  Attempts  made  at  Amherst  and  else- 
where to  combine  the  work  of  the  two  societies  into  a 
harmonious  whole  uniformly  failed.  When  only  one 
society  had  been  formed,  it  invariably  split  into  two 
rival  factions  as  soon  as  numbers  permitted. 

The  bitterest  hostility  occurred  at  the  beginning  of 
the  year  in  the  struggle  for  new  men.  At  Yale  a  sys- 
tematic campaign  was  undertaken.  Eunners  were  sent 
to  the  preparatory  schools  to  pledge  the  sub-freshmen; 
committees  of  students  haunted  the  trains,  the  ISTew 
Haven  depot,  and  the  hotels,  in  search  of  new  students. 
The  campaign  culminated  in  the  "  statement  of  facts," 
a  public  meeting  in  which  the  orators  from  each  society 
extolled  the  virtues  and  eulogized  the  departed  heroes 
of  their  own  organization  while  pouring  contempt  and 
ridicule  on  their  opponents.*  At  Amherst,  on  such 
occasions,  the  whole  college  became  the  scene  of  exas- 
perated strife.  Study  was  encroached  upon  and  per- 
sonal hostilities  excited  which  did  not  die  away  with  the 
occasion.!  The  historians  of  Williams,  Dartmouth, it 
and  Bowdoin  give  similar  testimony.  In  some  colleges 
the  faculty  interfered  and  apportioned  new  men  to  the 
societies  by  some  impartial  method  of  allotment.  Even 
this  could  not  put  a  stop  to  intrigue  and  faction  fights. 
To   fully   appreciate   the   bitterness   and   prejudice   to 

*  Bagg,  L.  H,  Four  Years  at  Yale,  by  a  Graduate  of  '69, 
p.  194. 

f  Hitchcock,  Edward.  Reminiscences  of  Amherst  College, 
p.  326. 

I  "The  records  of  the  societies  contain  accounts  of  con- 
spiracies and  attempts  to  destroy  the  societies,  accompanied  by 
reports  of  committees  treating  the  subject  with  the  dignity  of  a 
danger  to  the  State.  One  of  these  conspiracies  terminated  in  the 
destruction  of  nearly  all  the  records  of  the  Social  Friends,  and 
almost  caused  the  dissolution  of  that  society."  Smith,  H.  P. 
History  of  Dartmouth  College,  p.  86, 


STUDENT  LIFE  IX  REVOLUTIONARY  PERIOD.     129 

which  the  system  of  rival  debating  societies  gives  rise, 
one  must  visit  the  small  denominational  colleges  of 
the  far  West,  where  the  system  survives  in  much  of  its 
original  strength.* 

The  regular  programme  consisted  of  prepared  ora- 
tions, debates,  declamations,  and  critical  papers  treating 
of  literature  and  science.  Extemporaneous  speaking 
was  the  most  common,  but  the  literary  dissertations  or 
essays  received  most  attention,  and  were  often  spoken  of 
as  being  of  unusual  merit.  To  check  carelessness,  com- 
mittees were  appointed  to  judge  of  the  quality  of  the 
declamations  offered.  Loose  work  was  rejected,  while 
unusual  finish  of  speech  was  rewarded  with  honourable 
mention,  f  The  proceedings  were  conducted  with  de- 
corum, and  points  of  order  settled  with  rigid  regard  to 
precedent.  At  the  regular  sessions  of  the  clubs  the 
speeches  were  elevated  in  tone  and  marked  by  a  dignity 
of  manner. 

The  societies  felt  themselves  in  nowise  bound  by 
the  limitations  of  their  constitutional  programmes.  Ex- 
tras of  various  sorts  relieved  the  tedium  of  political  dis- 
cussion; this  was  particularly  true  of  the  period  of  de- 
cline, when  for  the  first  time  a  conscious  effort  was 
made  to  attract  the  public.  A  common  amusement 
took  the  form  of  an  anonymous  box  containing  jokes, 
gibes,  criticism,  sallies  of  wit,  and  caricatures.  The 
farce  still  remained  an  occasional  resource.  At  times 
the  members  impeached  the  president  with  much  cere- 
mony and  mock  dignity,  or  resolved  the  society  into 
a  senate,  a  congress  of  the  nations,  or  a  court  for  the 
trial  of  a  breach  of  promise  suit.  J;  In  addition  to  these, 
various  expedients  existed  in  the  form  of  vacation 
diaries,  soliloquies,  odes,  panegyrics,  hj'perboles,  and  se- 

*  Cutting,  George  A.    Student  Life  at  Amherst  College,  p.  24. 
t  Ibid.,  p.  18.  t  Iliid.,  pp.  23,  28,  48. 

9 


130  STUDENT  XIFE  AND  CUSTOMS. 

lect  anecdotes  and  pithy  sayings  of  literary  characters. 
In  the  best  days  of  the  literary  societies  these  varia- 
tions were  of  rare  occurrence  and  minor  consequence; 
their  importance  belongs  to  the  period  of  struggling 
decline. 

Occasionally  the  anonymous  box  or  pithy  sayings  of 
literary  characters  appeared  in  journalistic  form.  In 
many  cases  college  papers  trace  their  origin  to  this 
source.  So  strong  were  the  societies  that  they  some- 
times took  upon  themselves  the  responsibilities  of 
publication.  At  Columbia,  the  Peithologian  Society 
issued  the  "  Eecreations "  ;  its  rival,  the  Philolex- 
ian,  the  "  Observer."  *  The  societies  of  Wesleyan  and 
the  University  of  North  Carolina  likewise  issued 
papers. 

Another  form  of  society  activity  was  the  society 
libraries,  which  were  frequently  valuable  supplements 
of  the  regular  college  library,  which  was  likely  to  be 
weighed  down  with  theological  and  Latin  tomes,  the 
modern  shelves  being  but  scantily  filled.  This  deficiency 
was  supplied  by  the  society  library  which  furnished 
the  students  with  their  current  reading  matter.  Into 
the  building  up  of  libraries,  the  principle  of  rivalry 
largely  entered;  notwithstanding  the  poverty  of  the 
times,  subscriptions  of  fifty,  twenty,  and  ten  dollars 
were  not  uncommon.  The  poorer  students  solicited 
books  among  their  friends.  Public  sentiment  was  such 
that  students  often  contributed  beyond  their  means. 
The  books  chosen  were  usually  of  a  miscellaneous  char- 
acter, although,  with  the  exception  of  Yale,  there  is 
little  evidence  that  any  large  proportion  of  the  funds 
was  expended  on  fiction.  By  the  end  of  the  period 
under  discussion  the  two  Bowdoin  societies  had  each 


*  Bradley.  W.  A.     Underjjraduate  Publications  at  Columbia, 
Columbia  University  Quarterly,  vol.  i,  p.  358. 


STUDENT  LIFE  IN  REVOLUTIONARY  PERIOD.     131 

collected  from  five  to  six  tliousand  volumes;  the  socie- 
ties of  Williams  had  collectively  ten  thousand  volumes; 
those  of  Brown,  three  thousand  volimies  each;  and  the 
Columbia  societies  a  thousand  volumes  of  recent  litera- 
ture which  the  college  library  did  not  contain.  Owing 
to  the  change  in  values,  the  increase  of  wealth,  and  the 
decreased  cost  of  producing  books,  these  figures  should 
be  multiplied  by  five  to  indicate  the  real  significance  of 
the  effort  in  modern  terms.* 

Such  was  the  college  debating  society  of  the  first 
decades  of  the  century,  vigorous  in  its  expressions  and 
antagonisms,  covering  a  wide  circle  of  interests,  suffi- 
ciently powerful  to  assume  the  responsibility  of  college 
enterprises  and  to  supplement  the  resources  of  the  cur- 
riculum; it  filled  a  much  larger  place  in  student  life 
than  its  successor  of  to-day.  To  complete  the  sketch 
there  remains  to  be  added  an  account  of  its  social  side 
and  of  its  position  in  the  college  world  of  which  it 
formed  a  part. 

The  debating  society  was  intimately  connected  with 
the  ceremonial  events  of  the  college  year.  The  society 
anniversaries  at  Commencement  brought  the  alumni 
back  to  the  old  halls  and  the  scenes  of  their,  early  tri- 
umphs. Distinguished  clergymen  and  statesmen  de- 
livered charges  to  the  undergraduates  in  the  elevated 
but  pompous  diction  of  the  period.  The  society  mem- 
bers who  belonged  to  the  graduating  class  were  attired 

*  For  accounts  of  the  various  society  libraries,  see  Cleaveland 
and  Packard,  History  of  Bowdoin  College,  p.  28  ;  Diirfee,  C.  A., 
History  of  Williams  College,  p.  81  :  Cutting,  G.  R.,  Student 
Life  at  Amherst,  p.  20;  Tolman,  W.  H.,  History  of  Higher 
Education  in  Rhode  Island,  p.  198  ;  Smith,  B.  P.,  History  of 
Dartmouth  College,  p.  141  ;  Reminiscences  of  Scenes  and  Char- 
acters in  College,  by  a  Graduate  of  Yale,  Class  of  1821,  p.  Ill  : 
Brodt,  p.  E.,  Debating  Societies  at  Columbia,  Columbia  Uni- 
versity Quarterly,  vol,  i,  p.  50. 


132  STUDENT  LIFE  AND   CUSTOMS. 

in  a  special  paraphernalia  and  decked  out  in  colours  and 
medals  for  the  occasion.* 

In  other  ways  the  debating  society  performed  impor- 
tant social  functions.  It  appealed  to  many  of  the  same 
interests  which  the  fraternity  afterward  utilized.  While 
secrecy  of  meetings  was  a  recognised  principle  with  all 
the  early  literary  societies,  this  feature  was  a  distinctly 
minor  one.  The  same  may  be  said  of  initiation  ceremo- 
nies; they  were  merely  incidental  and  without  special 
significance.  Many  of  the  societies  adopted  badges,  col- 
ours, and  mottoes.  At  Amherst  the  badge  of  the  Alex- 
andrian Society  was  a  section  of  blue  ribbon  on  which 
was  stamped  an  engraving  of  rolls  of  parchment,  as 
seen  in  ancient  Alexandria,  underneath  which  was 
placed  an  appropriate  inscription.!  The  rival  Athe- 
nian Society  adopted  white  ribbons  with  different  sym- 
bols and  inscriptions.  The  motto  of  the  Dialectics  of 
North  Carolina  was,  "Love  of  virtue  and  science";  that 
of  the  Philanthropies,  "  Virtue,  liberty,  and  science."  % 
Great  care  was  lavished  on  the  society  halls;  expensive 
furnishings  were  purchased,  and  the  walls  covered  with 
the  portraits  of  distinguished  alumni.  Each  succeeding 
class  as  it  graduated  added  to  the  resources  of  the  so- 
ciety. The  comfortable,  almost  luxurious,  appearance 
of  the  debating  halls  presented  a  marked  contrast  to 
the  bare  and  bleak  class  rooms  by  which  they  were  sur- 
rounded. 

The  early  debating  society  was  one  of  the  great  in- 
terests of  the  student  world;  its  meetings  were  eagerly 
anticipated,  and  its  exercises  considered  to  be  of  much 

*  Cleaveland  and  Packard.    History  of  Bowdoin  College,  p.  99. 

t  Cutting,  G.  K.,  Student  Life  at  Amherst,  p.  41;  Schelling, 
Felix  E.,  Organizations  within  the  University,  in  F.  N.  Thorpe's 
Benjamin  Franklin  and  the  University  of  Pennsylvania,  p.  414. 

X  Smith,  C.  L.  History  of  Education  in  North  Carolina,  pp. 
92,  93,  108. 


STUDENT  LIFE  IN  REVOLUTIONARY  PERIOD.     I33 

greater  importance  than  the  regular  recitations  *  of  the 
college,  a  belief  strengthened  by  the  sympathetic  atti- 
tude of  the  faculty.  We  have  the  testimony  of  a  hostile 
critic  that  the  champions  of  the  debating  hall  were 
held  in  greater  esteem  by  their  fellow-students  than 
the  men  who  gained  the  traditional  college  honours  for 
proficiency  in  their  studies,  f  The  athlete  had  not  yet 
arisen  as  a  college  hero,  so  the  orator  and  writer  repre- 
sented the  ideals  of  the  academic  youth.  The  debating 
society  was  strong  in  the  affections  of  its  alumni;  dis- 
tinguished statesmen  affirmed  its  value  (W.  M.  Evarts, 
George  William  Curtis),  and  urged  its  adoption  on  the 
students  of  a  new  generation. 

Such  a  condition  of  affairs  was  not  destined  to  en- 
dure; a  new  organization,  appealing  more  directly  to 
the  interests  and  sentiments  of  youth,  entered  the  field, 
and  the  debating  society  lost  ground  before  it.  The 
fraternity  struck  the  older  association  at  its  weakest 
point.  i\.bout  1830,  the  debating  societies,  through  in- 
crease of  numbers,  began  to  be  unwieldy,  and  in  conse- 
quence a  victim  to  factional  contests.  In  some  colleges 
cliques  for  controlling  elections  in  the  literary  societies 
had  crystallized  into  formal  clubs  before  the  appearance 
of  the  fraternities.^;  The  fraternity  greatly  hastened 
this  tendency  to  dissolution;  the  debating  society  be- 
came the  arena  in  which  rival  fraternities  or  secret  and 
non-secret  societies  fought  for  the  supremacy.  The  lit- 
erary exercises  were  neglected,  while  rival  factions 
struggled  for  the  offices,  as  college  honours;  the  new  or- 
ganizations became  the  centre  of  interest,  while  the 

*  Cutting,  G.  R.,  Student  Life  at  Amherst,  p.  23:  Cleaveland 
and  Packard,  History  of  Bowdoin  College,  p.  98;  Smith,  C.  L., 
History  of  Education  in  North  Carolina,  p.  92. 

f  Bristed,  C.  A,    Five  Years  at  an  English  University,  p.  463. 

X  Hall,  B.  H.  A  Collection  of  College  Words  and  Customs, 
p.  454. 


134  STUDENT  LIFE  AND  CUSTOMS. 

old  traditional  societies  slowly  died.  The  process  did 
not  take  place  in  all  the  colleges  at  the  same  time; 
indeed,  as  we  shall  see  later,  there  are  portions  of  the 
country  in  which  the  antagonism  never  became  so  fierce. 
The  conflict  in  the  Eastern  colleges  began  as  early  as 
1840,  and  by  1870  the  old  societies  had  become  merely 
a  tradition.  Such  is  the  cause  assigned  by  the  standard 
Eastern  historians  for  the  downfall  of  the  debating  so- 
ciety. Yale,  Bowdoin,  Trinity,  Amherst,  Dartmouth, 
and  Tufts  all  tell  the  same  story;  occasional  testimony 
from  the  South  and  West  confirms  it.*'' 

But  such  an  explanation  fails  to  account  for  all  the 
phenomena.  How  did  it  come  about  that  in  the  col- 
leges of  the  middle  West  the  fraternity  and  debating 
society  exist  side  by  side  in  the  same  institution?-'  To 
answer  this  question  we  must  penetrate  beneath  the 
mere  surface  events,  and  describe  the  new  social  move- 
ment of  which  the  fraternity  was  merely  representative. 
Its  rise  marks  a  new  turn  in  American  life.  The  free 
democracy  of  frontier  gives  way  to  complexity,  social 
classes,  and  divisions.  A  leisured  class  is  evolved,  indif- 
ferent to  politics,  but  sensitive  to  higher  refinement. 
This  difl^erentiation  extends  to  the  colleges.  Men  no 
longer  have  all  tastes  in  common'!  One  man  devotes 
himself  to  music,  ^another  to  boating,  and  a  third  to 
German  novels.  'Me  content  of  instruction  becomes 
richer  with  each  decade.  The  student  body  in  time  be- 
comes too  large  for  the  old  institutions,  the  class  and 

*  Cleaveland  and  Packard,  History  of  Bowdoin  College,  p.  28 ; 
Steiner,  B.  C,  History  of  Higher  Education  in  Connecticut,  p. 
243;  Smith,  B.  P.,  History  of  Dartmouth  College,  p.  182;  Cut- 
ting, G.  R.,  Student  Life  at  Amherst,  p.  29;  Tyler,  W.  S.,  His- 
tory of  Amherst  College,  p.  316;  Start,  A.  B..  History  of  Tufts 
College,  p.  68;  Merriam,  L.  S.,  History  of  Higher  Education  in 
Tennessee,  p.  169;  Parker,  L.  F.,  Higher  Education  in  Iowa, 
p.  152. 


STUDEXT  LIFE  IN  REVOLUTIONARY  PERIOD.     135 

the  debating  society,  which  are  based  on  a  free  common 
lif^.  Most  important  of  all  these  factors,  the  athlete 
arises  in  the  land.  The  student  hero  is  no  longer  the 
writer  of  adolescent  verse,  or  the  president  of  the  de- 
bating societ}^,  but  the  captain  of  the  team — a  man  of 
much  muscle,  and  perhaps  little  intellectual  achieve- 
ment.* 

This  change  occurred  only  in  the  older  and  wealth- 
ier sections  of  the  country,  particularly  in  the  section 
dominated  by  large  manufacturing  and  commercial  in- 
terests— in  other  words,  in  Xew  England  and  the  cen- 
tral States.  In  this  territory  we  find  the  old  debating 
society  virtually  extinct;  the  forms  of  voluntary  foren- 
sic training  which  exist  are  embodied  in  organizations 
of  a  new  type,  w^hich  recognise  debating  as  a  specialty 
rather  than  as  a  general  interest.  But  in  the  Missis- 
sippi Valley,  which  is  predominantly  agricultural  and 
the  home  of  a  thrifty,  ambitious  middle  class  which 
determines  the  type  of  culture,  the  differentiation  has 
not  proceeded  so  far  as  in  the  East.  The  colleges  are 
smaller,  more  limited  in  their  curriculum,  more  local  in 
their  horizon.  In  consequence,  we  still  find  the  old  de- 
bating society  existing  in  the  "West,  sometimes  as  power- 
ful now  as  in  the  early  days  of  the  century,  more  often 
as  a  strong  although  not  a  predominant  factor  in  stu- 
dent life.  Xot  infrequently  it  exists  side  by  side  with 
the  fraternity  without  hostility.  ^ATien  an  institution 
expands  from  a  local  college  to  a  national  seat  of  learn- 
ing, the  debating  interests  are  usually  weakened  by 
the  change. 

In  estimating  the  value  of  the  training  offered  by  the 
debating  society,  we  will  first  sum  up  some  of  the  critical 

*  This  standpoint  is  also  taken  by  Mr.  P.  E.  Brodt  in  his  De- 
bating Societies  at  Columbia,  Columbia  University  Quarterly,  vol. 
i,  p.  50. 


136  STUDENT  LIFE  AND  CUSTOMS. 

discussions  which  appeared  in  this  period.  Archbishop 
Whately,*  in  an  address  before  the  students  of  Dulflin 
University,  attacked  the  debating  societies  because  they 
encouraged  precocity,  loose  thinking,  and  conceit  among 
their  members.  Some  of  his  objections  are  sound,  from 
a  logical  rather  than  a  pedagogical  standpoint;  for  in- 
stance, he  argues  that  young  men  are  too  immature  to 
discuss  problems  which  perplex  the  ablest  statesmen, 
forgetful  of  the  fact  that  young  men  must  some  time 
begin  to  discuss  public  affairs  if  the  line  of  able  states- 
men is  to  continue.  His  second  point — ^that  debating 
encourages  miscellaneous  reading  at  the  cost  of  orderly 
mental  development — has  lost  some  of  its  force  in  these 
days  when  the  doctrine  of  interest  plays  such  a  part  in 
education.  Whately  also  claimed  (1)  that  a  debating 
society  gave  a  man  a  careless  faculty  of  pouring  forth 
illy  digested  thoughts  in  well-turned  phrases,  or,  in 
other  words,  that  it  produced  lazy  thinkers;  and  (2)  that 
it  caused  premature  readiness  of  speech  rather  than  a 
well-balanced  mind. 

Our  next  critic,  Charles  Astor  Bristed,  devotes  the 
closing  chapter  of  his  book  (Five  Years  in  an  English 
University)  to  a  criticism  of  the  methods  of  forensic 
training  current  in  his  day  at  Yale.  He  first  notices 
the  lack  of  adequate  criticism  in  the  operations  of  the 
literary  societies.  "  There  are  gathered  together  from 
thirty  to  one  hundred  young  fellows  whose  capacity  to 
criticise  is  not  equal  to  their  disposition,  and  wliose  dis- 
position is  modified  by  their  interest."  f  They  are  in 
such  a  position  that  one  can  not  utter  his  opinion  with- 
out incurring  the  suspicion  of  jealousy.  The  conse- 
quence is,  that  the  loudest  and  most  showy  efforts  are 

*  Dang'crs  of  Debating  Societies  to   Young  Men.     Bentley's 
Miscellany,  vol.  xix,  p.  615. 

f  Five  Years  in  an  English  University,  p.  467. 


STUDENT  LIFE  IN  REVOLUTIONARY  PERIOD.     137 

most  applauded.  Bristed  has  here  hit  upon  the  most 
fundamental  weakness  of  the  debating  society  and  the 
one  most  emphasized  by  modern  teachers  of  forensics. 

The  predominant  interest  in  oratory  at  an  early  age 
defeats  its  owti  end.  The  ambitious  student  begins 
at  the  wrong  end;  he  acquires  manner  before  matter, 
and  a  style  in  advance  of  his  thought.  "  Even  here  he 
does  not  study  the  best  models  and  confine  himself  to 
them,  and  swallows  a  great  deal  of  second-  and  third- 
hand  matter.  He  acquires  a  childish  fondness  for 
metaphors  more  or  less  mixed,  and  for  all  sorts  of  fig- 
ures, as  if  they  were  the  sole  test  and  standard  of  excel- 
lence in  composition.  In  short,  he  aims  at  line  writing, 
and  sits  down  not  to  express  his  ideas  on  a  subject,  but 
to  write  a  piece.  His  untimely  doctrines  do  not  fructify. 
His  graces  and  ornaments  of  trope  and  metaphor,  like 
the  flowers  which  a  child  sticks  in  the  ground  to  make  a 
garden,  grow  faded  and  lose  vitality  for  the  want  of  nu- 
triment and  root.  He  wrote  fluently  at  eighteen.  At 
twenty-six  he  writes  a  trifle  more  fluently  but  in  no  re- 
spect better."  * 

But  the  effects  of  this  fundamental  superficiality  do 
not  end  with  style;  they  extend  to  thought  as  well. 
"  When  a  youth  acquires  the  talking  facility  and  propen- 
sity without  a  proper  training  and  knowledge  to  sup- 
port it,  when  most  of  his  authorities  are  third  or  fourth 
hand,  hearsay,  or  the  last  newspaper  article  or  the  con- 
fused recollection  of  what  was  first  imperfectly  read,  it 
follows  inevitably  that  he  must  make  many  mistakes 
which  his  verbal  dexterity  will  be  brought  into  requisi- 
tion to  protect.  And  from  this  combination  of  inac- 
curacy of  detail  with  facility  of  expression  results  one 
of  our  greatest  national  faults — a  tendency  to  defend 
rather  than  prevent  mistakes,  f     Frequent  debating  en- 

*  Five  Years  in  an  English  University,  p.  468.        f  Ibid.,  p.  471. 


138  STUDENT  LIFE  AND  CUSTOMS. 

courages  a  sophistic  habit  most  dangerous  for  a  young 
man  to  acquire,  since  it  puts  him  in  an  unfortunate 
frame  of  mind,  for  the  reception  of  knowledge  and  truth 
— victory,  not  truth,  to  effect  a  presumption  rather  than 
to  secure  the  acquisition  of  knowledge — is  the  end  of  de- 
bate. The  benefit  proposed,  sometimes  without  an  at- 
tempt to  disguise  it  to  the  pupil,  was  that  he  should  be 
able  to  humbug  the  people  and  get  on  in  the  world  (that 
is  the  plain  Saxon  of  it),  which  he  was  to  accomplish  by 
always  being  ready  to  talk  about  anything,  and  never  be 
at  a  loss  for  a  plausible  argument.''  This  practice  leads 
to  a  great  waste  of  time  in  Congress  and  other  public 
bodies. 

Bristed  is  not  alone  in  his  severe  judgment  of  the 
American  debating  society  during  this  early  period. 
Francis  A.  Walker  speaks  in  more  sweeping  and  less 
specific  language.  He  refers  to  the  desire  for  grandilo- 
quent, oratorical  display  as  the  curse  not  only  of  the 
college  but  of  the  public  life  of  the  times.*  A  Yale 
graduate  of  1821,  in  a  book  of  college  reminiscences, 
supplies  a  number  of  sketches  and  anecdotes  which  sus- 
tain and  supplement  the  statements  of  Bristed  and 
Walker,  t 

*  "  But,  however  the  type  of  college  hero  might  vary,  speech- 
making,  debating,  and  fine  writing  were  the  be-all  and  end-all 
of  college  training,  as  in  the  world  outside  college,  speech-mak- 
ing, debating,  or  fine  writing  were  the  sole  recognised  signs  of 
greatness.  Statesmanship  itself  was  perverted  to  seek  occasions 
for  oratorical  displays.  Men  of  business,  men  of  affairs,  men  of 
prudence,  moderation,  and  reliability  were  crowded  out  of  our 
legislative  halls  by  shrill-voiced  declaimers  who  could  catch  the 
ear  of  a  nation  given  over  to  the  lust  of  words."  Walker  consid- 
ered the  decline  of  the  debating  society  a  healthy  sign  in  Ameri- 
can life.  Francis  A.  Walker,  College  Athletics,  Harvard  Gradu- 
ate Magazine,  vol.  ii,  p.  3. 

f  Reminiscences  of  Scenes  and  Cliaracters  in  College,  by  a 
Graduate  of  Yale,  Class  of  1821,  p.  111. 


STUDENT  LIFE  IX  REVOLUTIONARY  PERIOD.     139 

It  must  be  taken  into  consideration,  however,  that 
the  weakness  of  the  instructing  force  and  the  limited 
character  of  the  course  of  study  left  the  students  to 
their  own  resources.  And  if  their  standards  of  excel- 
lence were  low,  it  was  chiefly  because  their  life  reflected 
all  too  faithfully  the  ideals  of  the  outside  world.  The 
dialectical  and  rhetorical  excesses  of  this  period  have 
their  distinct  warning:  they  emphasize  the  old  and  trite 
truth  that  matter  is  more  than  form,  and  facts  are 
more  important  than  style.  However,  this  truth  is  not 
likely  to  be  forgotten  by  the  present  generation  of  stu- 
dents. The  manifold  and  highly  specialized  courses  of 
instruction  with  a  scientific  literature  in  the  social  sci- 
ences leave  little  room  for  the  loose  thinking  of  sixty 
years  since. 

The  first  and  most  obvious  function  of  the  debating 
society,  and  the  function  most  universally  recognised, 
w^as  that  of  furnishing  an  opportunity  to  master  the 
mechanics  of  speech.*  There  is  a  certain  readiness  and 
fluency,  the  capacity  to  put  a  point  on  short  notice  which 
most  men  only  acquire  with  continuous  practice;  to 
learn  to  speak  well  one  must  speak  often.  The  debat- 
ing society  also  gives  the  student  his  first  rough  intro- 
duction to  parliamentary  law.  While  both  these  oppor- 
tunities may  perhaps  be  supplied  by  a  course  in  fo- 
rensics,  the  sense  of  freedom  and  individual  initiative 
is  absent  to  such  an  extent  that  the  training  on  these 
points  is  greatly  inferior.  The  debating  society  pos- 
sesses another  advantage  in  the  comparative  ease  with 
which  it  reaches  large  numbers  of  men.     In  many  cases 

*  For  a  study  of  the  peda,c:ogy  of  the  debating  society  see  arti- 
cles on  Discussion  Classes  in  Chambers's  Edinburgh  Journal,  vol.  ix, 
p.  107 ;  and  ]McElligott,  James  N.,  Debating  Societies  as  a  Means 
of  Intellectual  Discipline,  Barnard's  American  Journal  of  Educa- 
tion, vol.  i. 


140  STUDENT  LIFE  AND  CUSTOMS. 

it  is  not  so  well  calculated  to  produce  a  few  brilliant 
speakers  or  parliamentarians  as  to  send  forth  a  large 
number  of  men  who  have  attained  to  a  fair  standard  of 
excellence.  It  need  not  be  argued  that  in  a  democracy- 
such  a  consideration  is  of  great  weight. 

However,  to  the  mind  of  the  writer,  it  would  seem 
that  the  chief  function  of  these  societies  is  not  so  much 
to  master  the  mechanical  conditions  of  public  speech 
as  to  create  and  strengthen  a  permanent  interest  in  pub- 
lic affairs.  If  we  agree  with  the  recent  utterances  of  a 
prominent  professor  of  pedagogy  and  say  that  the  object 
of  education  is  the  creation  of  permanent  interests,  then 
the  debating  society  is  one  of  the  most  important  of  our 
educational  institutions.  The  discussions  usually  do 
not  furnish  new  and  accurate  data  for  judgments,  but 
they  produce  personal  reactions  in  other  men;  they 
stimulate  their  members  to  think  on  a  wide  circle  of  in- 
terests which  otherwise  would  hardly  receive  serious  at- 
tention. A  foundation  is  laid  which  gradually  collects 
around  itself  the  accretions  of  miscellaneous  reading 
and  chance  discussion,  until  a  broad  intelligence  finally 
results.  IN'ot  only  is  such  an  interest  on  the  part  of  a 
large  portion  of  the  citizens  essential  to  the  creation  of 
that  public  opinion,  which  in  America,  at  least,  is  essen- 
tial to  the  proper  management  of  public  affairs,  but  it 
has  an  individual  function  as  well.  A  man  who  daily 
follows  the  turns  of  European  diplomacy,  the  careers  of 
statesmen,  or  the  advance  of  Western  civilization  in  the 
Orient,  has  a  culture  resource  which  elevates  and  ex- 
pands his  personality  and  raises  him  above  the  narrow- 
ing influences  of  neighbourhood  and  vocation. 

An  admirable  expression  of  this  idea  is  contained 
in  a  quotation  from  the  London  Spectator,  which  we 
give  in  full:  "  There  is  a  stimulation  which  comes  from 
the  discussion  of  great  questions.  There  is  an  intellec- 
tual  vivifying,   and   broadening,   and   clearing   which 


STUDENT  LIFE  IN  REVOLUTIONARY  PERIOD.     141 

comes  from  the  influence  of  mind  over  mind  which  few 
things  effect  as  well  as  a  good  discussion.  Debating  so- 
cieties for  young  men  are  not,  properly  speaking,  schools 
for  loquacity  at  all.  There  is  an  age — the  university  age 
— when  adequate  speech  on  the  various  ends  and  mo- 
tives of  life  become  something  altogether  beyond  mere 
speech,  the  natural  work,  the  appropriate  action,  the 
characteristic  tendency  of  the  mind,  and  when  there  is 
every  reason  for  aiding  the  expressive  crj^stallization  of 
thought  and  feeling;  an  age  when  theoretical  discus- 
sions ought  to  be,  if  they  are  not,  the  very  means  of  life 
and  growth,  when  it  is  as  silly  to  call  such  discussions 
mere  talk  as  it  is  later  to  call  a  cabinet  council  such. 
This  is  not  talk;  it  is  the  preparation  for  action,  it  is  the 
springing  up  and  organization  of  the  intellectual  en- 
erg}^,  it  is  intellectual  volition.  Without  the  mere  talk 
of  young  men^s  theoretical  discussions,  the  collision  of 
taste  with  taste,  of  intellect  with  intellect,  of  conscience 
with  conscience,  of  spirit  with  spirit,  the  characters  of 
the  best  men  of  the  nation  would  hardly  come  to  birth 
at  all/'  ''■' 

On  a  lower  plane  the  debating  society  furnishes  a 
field  for  the  study  of  the  individual  in  relation  to  group 
action.  It  reproduces  to  a  certain  extent  the  tenden- 
cies and  reactions  of  Congress  or  Parliament.  From 
participation  in  these  play  activities  the  student  learns 
the  turns,  tricks,  artifices,  and  humours  of  public  bodies. 

In  the  old  literary  societies  there  was  a  certain 
breadth  and  esprit  de  corps  which  made  them  a  strong 
bond  between  the  student  and  the  college,  besides  fur- 
nishing an  opportunity  for  the  student  to  develop  in 
many  directions,  which  is  not  possible  to-day.  The 
close   contact  of  man  with  man  which  characterized 

*  Taken  as  quoted  bv  E.  E.  Aikens,  The  Secret-Society  System, 
p.  44.     Reference  not  verified. 


142  STUDENT  LIFE  AND  CUSTOMS. 

them  gave  rise  to  those  close  friendships  which  are 
justly  prized  as  one  of  the  best  products  of  American 
college  life.  Indeed,  the  question  may  be  fairly  put: 
Whether  the  old  open  organizations,  like  the  class  and 
debating  society,  were  not  better  calculated  to  develop 
enduripg  feelings  of  comradeship  than  the  modern  sys- 
tem of  fraternities  and  special  clubs?  * 

To  sum  up  briefly  the  pedagogy  of  the  debating  so- 
ciety. We  may  conclude  that  its  chief  function  is  to 
prepare  students  for  public  life.  This  aim  it  accom- 
plishes by  giving  them  mechanical  dexterity  of  speech, 
by  deepening  their  interest  in  social  and  political  prob- 
lems, and  by  anticipating  the  rules  and  conditions  of 
parliamentary  bodies.  While  we  have  noticed  that  ex- 
cessive devotion  to  debating  without  proper  standards 
leads  to  certain  grave  evils,  it  is  likewise  evident  that 
the  character  of  the  instruction  given  in  our  larger 
colleges  is  at  the  present  time  a  sufficient  safeguard 
against  these  abuses. 

§  3.  Miscellaneous  Societies  in  the  Eevolution- 
ARY  Period. 

a.  Fraternities.  —  The  Phi  Beta  Kappa,  the  first 
Greek-letter  society  in  America,  was  organized  Decem- 

*  Mr.  Philip  E.  Brodt,  of  Columbia,  speaks  of  their  many-sided- 
ness in  the  following  words  :  "  As  one  traces  this  development  of 
the  all-inclusive  society  into  the  club  which  trains  men  in  speak- 
ing alone,  he  recognises  how  many  organizations  now  provide  the 
facilities  which  a  single  organization  used  to  give,  he  must  feel 
how  much  we  have  lost  by  this  minute  division  of  interests.  It 
was  a  wholesome,  democratic  life  when  a  single  society  had  in  it 
enough  to  bring  together  men  of  every  taste  and  class ;  and  there 
was  in  such  a  life  a  breadth  of  opportunity  for  a  student  to  de- 
velop in  more  directions  than  one,  which  is  hardly  possible  to- 
day." Debating  Societies  at  Columbia,  in  Columbia  University 
Quarterly,  vol.  i,  p.  52. 


STUDENT  LIFE  IN  REVOLUTIONARY  PERIOD.    143 

ber  5,  1776,  at  the  College  of  William  and  Mary,  by  five 
students.  The  choice  of  a  Greek  name  seems  to  have 
been  purely  accidental.  The  meetings  of  the  society 
seem  to  have  possessed  the  same  general  character  which 
belongs  to  the  fraternity  meetings  of  to-day.  The  aim 
of  the  organization  was  social  with  some  incidental  lit- 
erary training;  non-collegians  were  occasionally  ad- 
mitted to  membership.  Charters  were  granted  to  a 
number  of  local  lodges  in  Virginia,  but  they  were  never 
heard  of  afterward.  Because  of  the  exigencies  of  war- 
fare, the  parent  society  ceased  to  exist  in  January, 
1781.='^ 

Mr.  Elisha  Parmele,  a  graduate  of  Harvard,  and 
formerly  a  student  of  Yale,  received  grants  of  two  char- 
ters for  the  N"orthern  extension  of  the  order  in  1779.  In 
1780  the  Alpha  of  Connecticut  was  formed,  and  in  1782 
the  Alpha  of  Massachusetts.  In  the  various  Northern 
colleges  the  fraternity  took  upon  itself  different  forms 
of  activity.  The  society  at  Yale  made  efforts  to  keep  up 
a  literary  communication  with  Harvard,  but  failed. 
Its  real  life  was  confined  to  the  local  membership.  At- 
tempts were  made  to  found  a  periodical  and  establish 
a  fund  for  indigent  students;  these  efforts  were  also 
doomed  to  failure.  The  Yale  chapter  was  in  reality  a 
select  debating  society  with  initiation  suppers  where 
"  the  juice  of  Bacchus  flowed.'^  Regarded  with  great 
jealousy  by  outsiders,  its  records  were  twice  stolen  dur- 
ing its  early  history.  The  annals  of  the  Phi  Beta 
Kappa  are  famous  for  a  long  series  of  orations  and 
poems.  The  anti-^Iasonic  excitement  in  1830  caused 
the  abandonment  of  the  secret  features  of  the  order  at 
both  Yale  and  Harvard,  f 

*  Baird,  W.  R.  American  College  Fraternities,  third  edition, 
pp.  275,  276. 

t  Yale  Book,  vol.  i,  pp.  325-327. 


14:tl:  STUDENT   LIFE  AND  CUSTOMS/ 

At  Bowdoin  the  Phi  Beta  Kappa  (1824)  became  a 
form  of  learned  academy,  no  undergraduates  being  ad- 
mitted. Papers  and  subjects  for  investigation  were  as- 
signed to  members  of  the  college  and  other  learned  men. 
This  scheme  in  time  fell  into  disuse  and  an  address  and 
a  poem  were  substituted.*  Since  1830  the  membership 
in  the  Phi  Beta  Kappa  has  been  almost  exclusively  an 
honorary  distinction  granted  to  the  best  scholars  of  the 
senior  class.  At  Amherst,  for  instance,  all  those  who 
at  the  end  of  the  junior  year  had  an  average  of  more 
than  eighty-five  were  at  first  chosen.  Afterward  the 
faculty  nominated  that  fifth  of  the  junior  class  whose 
standing  was  the  highest,  f  The  first  imitation  of 
the  Phi  Beta  Kappa  was  a  senior  society  at  Yale, 
the  Chi  Delta  Theta,  founded  in  1821.  If  we  can 
judge  from  the  branch  at  Amherst,  it  was  a  select  liter- 
ary society.  The  exercises  consisted  of  translations  in 
prose  and  verse  from  the  classical  authors,  disserta- 
tions on  literary  subjects,  and  criticisms  of  ancient 
and  modern  books  of  note.  At  the  conclusion  of  the 
programme  the  college  Professor  of  Literature  criticised 
the  proceedings.  At  one  time  several  successive  meet- 
ings were  devoted  to  the  study  of  Shakespeare.  X 

The  Phi  Beta  Kappa  and  Chi  Delta  Theta  must 
be  considered  preparatory  to  the  modern  fraternity 
movement  which  may  be  said  to  date  its  origin  from  the 
organization  of  the  Kappa  Alpha  Society  at  Union  Col- 
lege in  1825.  It  was  in  its  external  features  an  imita- 
tion of  the  Phi  Beta  Kappa,  but  the  tie  between  its 
members  was  a  much  closer  one. 

The  leading  Greek-letter  societies  were  formed  as 
follows:  The  Delta  Phi  Sigma  at  Union  (1827),  the 

*  Cleaveland  and  Packard.     History  of  Bowdoin  College,  p.  29. 
f  Cutting,  G.  A.    Student  Life  at  Amherst  College,  p.  53. 
X  Ibid.,  p.  50. 


STUDENT  LIFE   IX  REVOLL  TIOXARY  PERIOD.     I45 

Alpha  Delta  Phi  at  Hamilton  (  832),  the  Psi  Upsilon  at 
Union  (1833),  Chi  Psi  at  Un?  m  (1841),  Delta  Kappa 
Epsilon  at  Yale  (1844),  Zeta  I 'si  at  New  York  Univer- 
sity (1844).*  The  same  period  witnessed  the  rise  of  a 
large  number  of  local  societies  at  different  institutions, 
particularly  at  Trinity  College  and  Wesleyan  University. 
The  latter  boasts  three  prominent  societies  during  this 
period:  the  TuD  Philosophers,  aftenvard  knowTi  as  the 
Thecanians;  the  Mystical  Seven  (1837);  and  the  Phi 
ISTu  Theta,  kno\\Ti  as  the  Eclectic. f 

&.  Athletics. — During  the  Revolutionary  era  some  at- 
tention was  given  to  athletic  sports  and  gymnastics  from 
time  to  time  in  spurts,  but  no  formal  organization  was 
provided  for.  Athletics  was  regarded  as  a  waste  of  time 
by  the  faculty,  and  the  athlete  was  not  respected  by  the 
student.  Occasionally  the  students  of  Harvard  and  Yale 
kicked  a  football  about  on  the  Common  or  in  the  street, 
and  a  yearly  game  took  place  between  the  sophomores 
and  freshmen,  which  partook  largely  of  the  nature  of 
a  modern  rush.  J 

Dr.  Pollen  was  the  first  to  introduce  systematic  gym- 
nastics. He  equipped  an  old  room  in  one  of  the  build- 
ings at  Harvard  with  masts,  parallel  bars,  and  the  usual 
variety  of  apparatus  for  athletic  training.  Under  his 
direction,  the  students  were  taught  to  run  with  a  mini- 
mum of  fatigue,  their  bodies  thrown  slightly  forward, 
arms  akimbo,  and  breathing  through  the  nose.  He  led 
the  entire  body  of  students  from  the  Delta  to  the  top  of 
a  hill  in  the  neighbouring  to^^m  of  Somerville.*  In 
September,   1826,  the   Yale   corporation   appropriated 

*  Baird,  W.  R.     American  College  Fraternities,  third  edition, 
p.  6. 

f  Steiner,  B.  C.     History  of  Education  in  Connecticut,  p.  270. 
X  Hall,  B.  H.     A  Collection  of  College  Words  and  Customs, 
p.  207. 

*  Peabody.  A.  P.     Harvard  Reminiscences,  p.  120. 

io 


14:6  STUDENT  LIFE  AND  CUSTOMS. 

three  hundred  dollars  fc  r  the  cleaning  and  preparation 
of  the  grounds  for  a  g}  nnasium  and  "  the  erection  of 
apparatus  for  gymnastic  exercises  with  a  view  to  the 
promotion  of  the  health  of  the  students."  This  gymna- 
sium was  not  under  cover.*  From  Bristed  we  learn 
that  athletics  was  greatly  neglected  at  Yale  during  this 
period,  and  that  the  exercise  was  too  slight  and  irregular 
to  be  of  service  to  the  students,  f 

Among  the  Princeton  students  shinny,  which  was 
known  as  hawkey  and  hurley,  was  as  great  a  favourite 
with  the  students  as  football  in  the  other  colleges.  The 
players  were  equipped  with  a  stick  five  feet  long,  two 
and  a  half  inches  in  diameter,  and  curved  at  one 
end.  A  grand  contest  took  place  annually  between  the 
juniors  and  sophomores  in  this  game. J;  The  under- 
graduates of  Amherst  devoted  considerable  attention  to 
football  in  the  early  days,  but,  as  the  century  advanced, 
baseball,  cricket,  wicket,  pitching  of  loggerheads  and 
quoits  and  round-ball  gained  in  popularity.  In  1826  a 
gymnastic  society  was  formed,  the  chief  object  of  which 
was  the  erection  and  support  of  apparatus  for  gymnastic 
exercise  in  a  certain  grove.  The  faculty  forbade  the 
establishment  of  bowling  alleys  because  they  would 
be  noisy,  and,  although  innocent,  might  be  perverted. 
Occasional  addresses  were  given  before  the  society  on 
physical  culture.*  At  Bowdoin  football  and  baseball 
in  their  simpler  forms  were  occasionally  indulged  in,  but 
boating  was  unknown.  Tramping  down  the  river  to  a 
certain  consecrated  rock,  and  swimming,  were  the  most 
popular  amusements.  1 1 

*  Yale  Book,  vol.  11,  p.  458. 

f  Bristed,  C.  A.     Five  Years  at  an  English  University. 

X  Hall,  B.  H.    A  Collection  of  College  Words  and  Customs,  p.  423. 

*  Cutting,  George  R.    Student  Life  at  Amherst  College,  pp. 
Ill,  112. 

II  Cleaveland  and  Packard.    History  of  Bowdoin  College,  p.  96. 


STUDENT  LIFE  IN  REVOLUTIONARY  PERIOiD.     149 

The  attitude  of  the  governing  power  toward  studeiJe 
athletics  is  well  expressed  in  a  resolution  passed  by  the 
Princeton  faculty  on  November  26,  1787:  "It  appear- 
ing that  a  play  at  present  much  practised  by  the  small 
boys  among  the  students,  and  by  the  grammar  scholars, 
with  balls  and  sticks  "  (shinny),  "  in  the  back  campus 
of  the  college,  is  in  itself  low  and  unbecoming  gentle- 
men and  scholars,  and  is  attended  with  great  danger  to 
the  health  by  sudden  and  alternate  heats  and  colds: 

"  As  it  tends,  by  accidents  almost  unavoidable  in 
that  play,  to  disfiguring  and  maiming  those  who  had  en- 
gaged in  it,  for  whose  health  and  safety  as  Vv'ell  as  im- 
provement in  study  as  far  as  depends  upon  our  exertion 
we  are  accountable  to  their  parents  and  likely  to  be  se- 
verely blamed  by  them,  and  inasmuch  as  there  are  many 
amusements  both  more  honourable  and  more  useful  in 
w^hich  they  are  indulged — therefore  the  faculty  think  it 
incumbent  upon  them  to  prohibit  students  and  grammar 
scholars  from  using  the  game  aforesaid."  * 

Francis  A.  Walker  has  described  the  attitude  of  the 
students  of  the  time  toward  athletics:  "There  was 
more  than  indifference,  there  was  contempt  for  phys- 
ical prowess.  A  man  kno^vTi  to  be  especially  gifted  in 
this  way  was  thereby  disparaged  in  public  estimation; 
if  he  was  known  to  make  much  of  it,  he  was  more  likely 
to  be  despised.  It  was  taken  for  granted  that  he  could 
not  be  good  for  much  else.  Brains  and  brawn  were 
supposed  to  be  developed  in  inverse  ratio;  strength  was 
closely  akin  to  brutality."  f  With  the  exception  of  the 
two  gymnastic  clubs  already  alluded  to,  there  were  no 
athletic  organizations  during  this  period,  unless  the 
famous  Bully  Club  be  placed  in  this  category. 

*  Quoted  by  G.  R.  Wallace.     Princeton  Sketches,  p.  77. 
f  See  article  College  Athletics,  in  Harvard  Graduate  Magazine, 
vol.  ii,  p.  3. 


146  STUDENT  LIFE  AND  CUSTOMS. 

+''  c.  Self-governing  Institutions. — The  application  of 
the  principles  of  the  Declaration  of  Independence  to 
the  government  and  discipline  of  students  was  an  idea 
which  could  not  but  occur  to  a  generation  so  thor- 
oughly saturated  with  the  formulas  of  democracy  as 
the  Americans  of  the  period  from  1780  to  1840.  A 
limited  scheme  of  self-government  was  among  the  prin- 
ciples which  Jefferson  laid  dow^n  for  the  University 
of  Virginia.  A  board  of  six  censors  was  named  by 
the  faculty  from  among  the  most  discreet  students, 
^^  whose  duty  it  shall  be,  sitting  as  a  court  of  inquiry,  to 
examine  the  facts  of  offences,  propose  minor  punish- 
ments which  they  think  proportioned  to  the  offence, 
and  make  a  report  to  the  professors,  who  may  commute 
the  offence/^  After  one  year's  trial  the  scheme  was  not 
re-enacted.  To  the  average  educator  of  the  times  such 
a  plan  seemed  fanciful  and  impracticable.*  However, 
the  University  of  Virginia  did  away  with  the  usual  sys- 
tem of  espionage  and  recognised  the  student's  responsi- 
bility as  a  man.  There  were  no  exasperating  rules;  a 
student  must  respect  the  rights  of  others;  in  every  re- 
spect he  possessed  all  the  liberty  which  he  would  have 
had  in  New  York  city.f 

At  Trinity  College,  Hartford,  Connecticut,  a  mock 
court  known  as  the  Grand  Tribunal  was  established;  it 
consisted  of  the  junior  and  senior  classes,  and  had  for 
its  special  object  the  regulation  and  discipline  of  sopho- 
mores. The  Grand  High  Chancellor  presided  at  all 
business  meetings,  assisted  by  judges,  advocates,  sheriffs, 
and  aids.  N"o  sophomore  could  be  tried  who  had  three 
votes  in  his  favour,  which  made  trials  somewhat  infre- 

*  A  Hostile  Account  of  the  Virginia  Plan  is  found  in  an  article 
entitled  College  Instruction  and  Discipline,  American  Quarterly 
Review,  vol.  ix,  p.  294. 

f  Stevens,  W.  L.  Self-Government  in  Colleges,  Popular  Science 
Monthly,  vol.  xix,  p.  697. 


STUDEXT  LIFE  IN  REVOLUTIOXAKY  PERIOD.     149 

quent.  Earely  more  than  one  took  place  in  a  year,  while 
sometimes  two  years  elapsed  without  a  session  of  the 
court.  When  the  selection  of  the  offending  sophomore 
had  been  made,  he  was  arrested  some  time  during  the 
day  of  the  evening  on  which  his  trial  took  place.  The 
court  provided  him  with  one  advocate,  while  he  had  the 
privilege  of  choosing  another.  These  trials  were  often 
scenes  of  considerable  wit  and  eloquence.  The  faculty 
of  the  college  acted  as  police  to  keep  out  sophomores 
who  would  be  likely  to  create  a  disturbance.* 

At  Amherst  a  similar  institution  was  known  as  the 
House  of  Students.  One  of  its  objects  was  to  enact 
such  laws  in  addition  to  the  statutes  of  the  college  as 
the  good  of  the  community  would  seem  to  require. 
Closely  associated  with  the  House  of  Students  was  a 
Court  of  Justice  which  the  students  instituted,  and 
which  met  after  the  rhetorical  exercises.  Duly  organ- 
ized with  judge  and  officers,  it  tried  petty  cases  in  the 
college,  and  its  decisions  were  much  respected  by  both 
faculty  and  students.  It  is  said  that  Professor  Jacob 
Abbott  had  something  to  do  with  the  establishment  of 
the  court.  Before  it  were  brought  cases  of  alleged  in- 
juries to  college  buildings,  instances  of  discourtesy  and 
indecorum,  outrages,  encroachments  on  the  rights  of  the 
students,  etc.  Sometimes  petty  cases  of  college  disci- 
pline were  yielded  to  the  court  by  the  faculty.  Fines 
were  imposed  on  those  found  guilty.  The  judicial 
branch  was  much  more  successful  than  the  legislative, 
and  continued  in  operation  for  a  longer  period.  The 
proceedings  in  both  were  conducted  according  to  the 
forms  of  law,  with  judge,  associate  judges,  jury,  counsel, 
witnesses,  etc.  The  shrewd  cross-questioning  of  the 
witnesses  and  the  charges  of  the  judge  were  not  soon 

*  Hall,  B.  H.  A  Collection  of  College  Words  and  Customs, 
p.  239. 


150  STUDENT  LIFE  AND  CUSTOMS. 

forgotten  by  the  participants  in  the  trials.  Their  influ- 
ence was  salutary,  and  much  amusement  was  afforded  to 
spectators  of  the  proceedings. 

The  burlesque  element  enters  largely  into  some  of 
the  student  courts  established  during  this  period,  as,  for 
instance,  that  at  Union  College,  New  York.  In  this  in- 
stitution buildings  were  divided  into  sections,  a  section 
comprising  about  fifteen  rooms.  Within  each  section 
was  established  a  court  composed  of  a  judge,  an  advo- 
cate, and  a  secretary,  who  were  chosen  by  the  students 
resident  therein,  and  held  their  offices  during  one  college 
term.  Each  section  court  claimed  the  power  to  summon 
for  trial  any  inhabitant  within  the  bounds  of  its  juris- 
diction who  might  be  charged  with  improper  conduct. 
The  accused  might  either  defend  himself  or  select  some 
person  to  plead  for  him.  Such  residents  of  the  section 
as  cared  to  do  so  acted  as  jurors.  The  prisoner,  if 
found  guilty,  was  sentenced  at  the  discretion  of  the 
court,  generally  to  treat  the  company  to  some  specified 
drink  or  dainty.  These  courts  often  afforded  occasions 
for  much  fun,  and  sometimes  called  out  real  wit  and  elo- 
quence.* 

Early  in  the  century  rowdyism  became  such  a  nui- 
sance at  Yale  that  certain  individuals  belonging  to  the 
freshman  and  sophomore  classes  constituted  themselves 
a  vigilance  committee  or  voluntary  police  force,  which' 
patrolled  the  college  in  the  dark  and  reported  such  as 
they  detected  or  suspected.  The  innocent  were  as  likely 
to  be  laid  hold  of  as  others.  The  majority  of  the 
classes  were  opposed  to  this  club  law  and  haphazard 
mode  of  dealing  with  offences  in  the  dark,  and  it  soon 
passed  away.f 

*  Hall,  B.  H.  A  Collection  of  College  Words  and  Customs, 
p.  407. 

+  Reminiscences  of  Scenes  and  Characters  in  College,  by  a 
Graduate  of  Yale,  Class  of  1831,  pp.  131,  132. 


STUDENT  LIFE  IN  REVOLUTIONARY  PERIOD.    151 

None  of  the  experiments  in  self-government  which 
we  have  enumerated  and  described  influenced  the  col- 
lege discipline  permanently  or  played  an  important  part 
in  the  student  life.  Where  their  origin  can  be  traced 
we  find  that  they  were  the  result  of  the  influence  of  some 
one  individual  indoctrinated  with  democratic  ideas. 
The  relations  between  faculty  and  students  were  such 
that  there  was  neither  trust  on  one  side  nor  confidence 
on  the  other.  The  ages  of  the  students,  varying  from 
fourteen  to  thirty,  and  the  iii  loco  parentis  theory  of  dis- 
cipline, cut  the  ground  from  under  any  self-governing 
experiment. 

d.  Journalism. — To  the  historian  of  student  life  col- 
lege journalism  has  a  peculiar  value;  the  spirit  of  youth, 
elsewhere  limited  and  checked  by  the  actual  environ- 
ment, finds  here  its  fullest  and  freest  expression.  The 
sentimentality,  the  contentiousness  and  fickleness,  the 
yearning  for  the  vague  and  unknowable,  a  strong  sense 
of  humour  as  well  as  a  marked  tendency  to  imitation,  are 
all  exhibited  in  their  bare  simplicity  in  student  publica- 
tions, especially  those  of  the  earlier  period,  before  the 
modern  critical  spirit  was  abroad;  they  are  a  rich  store- 
house of  material  for  the  student  of  the  adolescent  mind. 
These  publications  are  perhaps  not  less  valuable  to  the 
student  of  literature,  for  in  its  enthusiastic  admiration 
youth  catches  the  dominant  note  of  the  age  more  clearly 
than  the  mature  mind  of  critic  or  writer,  and  conse- 
quently reflects  more  faithfully  the  attitude  of  the  gen- 
eral reading  public.  In  this  section,  however,  we  are 
interested  in  college  Journalism  more  from  the  stand- 
point of  pedagogy.  The  question  we  shall  endeavour 
to  answer  is,  "  What  part  has  college  journalism  played 
in  the  education  of  the  American  student? '' 

The  earliest  student  papers  were  either  the  product  of 
a  few  private  individuals  working  usually  in  secret,  or 
were  published  in  the  interests  of  a  debating  society. 


152  STUDENT  LIFE  AND  CUSTOMS. 

One  of  the  regular  numbers  of  the  old  debating  society 
programme  consisted  of  the  reading  of  a  journalistic 
production,  largely  humorous  and  partly  critical  in  char- 
acter; a  custom  still  continued  in  many  high  schools. 
When  the  first  of  these  written  papers  was  published  it 
is  impossible  to  say,  although  we  have  definite  record  of 
such  publication  in  the  first  decade  of  the  present  cen- 
tury. The  Literary  Tablet  of  Dartmouth  appeared  in 
1803,  the  Literary  Cabinet  of  Yale  in  1806;  neither  of 
these  journals  nor  their  successors  *  for  more  than 
twenty  years  lasted  beyond  their  first  few  numbers.  In 
a  majority  of  cases  both  financial  support  and  perma- 
nent organization  were  lacking.  At  Yale  there  were 
seven  unsuccessful  experiments  before  the  foundation  of 
the  first  permanent  venture,  The  Yale  Literary  Maga- 
zine, in  1837.  A  brief  resume  of  conditions  at  Amherst 
will  give  the  reader  some  idea  of  the  character  of  college 
journalism  during  this  period. 

The  Sprite,  a  magazine  of  thirty-two  pages,  made  its 
appearance  in  1831;  it  was  edited  by  a  number  of  indi- 
viduals who  styled  themselves  the  Elves  of  Gunnistan. 
The  contents  of  this  periodical  presented  little  variety, 
and  consisted  of  tales  of  a  romantic  and  fanciful 
nature,  together  with  essays,  poems,  and  humorous 
sketches.  The  publication  of  The  Sprite  ceased  with  six 
monthly  numbers,  owing  to  the  lack  of  financial  support 
and  the  want  of  harmony  among  the  editors.  The  next 
year  produced  a  similar  periodical.  The  Shrine,  issued  by 
one  member  of  the  junior  class.  The  personal  enthu- 
siasm of  its  contributors  made  this  venture  a  success, 
and  it  attained  to  the  long  life  of  two  years.  The 
Guest  appeared  in  1833,  published  by  a  secret  literary 
club,  but  soon  expired.     The  first  publication  on  a  per- 

*  Smith,  B.  P.    History  of  Dartmouth  College,  p.  163  ;  College 
Journalism,  Yale  Book,  vol.  i.,  p.  338. 


STUDENT  LIFE  IN  REVOLUTIONARY  PERIOD.     15^> 

manent  bias.  The  Hor^e  Collegianse,  issued  by  the  senior 
class,  came  out  in  1837,  and  lived  for  three  years.  It 
was  said  to  be  the  best  representative  of  magazine  litera- 
ture which  the  college  ever  had.  Eight  years  after  its 
demise  The  Indicator  (1848)  entered  the  field.  It  like- 
wise had  an  existence  of  three  years,  and  owed  its  death 
to  the  profundity  of  its  articles  which  were  unsuited  to 
a  student  periodical.  It  was  succeeded  by  The  Experi- 
ment, which  was  written,  edited,  and  printed  by  one  stu- 
dent, who  hoped  thereby  to  pay  the  expenses  of  his  edu- 
cation. This  ambitious  youth  died  on  the  appearance 
of  the  fifth  number  of  The  Experiment.  Finally,  in 
1858,  a  permanent  magazine,  The  Amherst  Collegiate, 
was  established.* 

Of  the  two  types  of  college  journal,  the  light  ephem- 
eral paper  and  the  heavy  literary  magazine,  the  for- 
mer is  by  all  odds  the  most  interesting  as  a  portrayal  of 
student  life.  One  of  the  most  interesting  of  these  pro- 
ductions was  the  Students'  Companion  of  Yale,  edited 
by  the  Knights  of  the  Eound  Table,  the  membership  of 
which  consisted  of  Arthur  Fitzeddyn,  the  narrator;  Eo- 
land  Hopeden,  the  novelist;  Launcelot  Grammont,  the 
reflector;  Jeffrey  McGrawler  Blackwood,  the  critic; 
Francis  Haller,  the  philosopher;  Thomas  Blondel,  the 
troubadour;  Raphael  AVerner,  the  delineator;  Sir  Tris- 
tam  Trapp,  the  politician;  and  Harry  Tudor,  the  re- 
corder. While  these  mythical  personages  were  all  cari- 
catures of  actual  individuals,  the  paper  was  written  by 
one  man,  David  Francis  Bacon,  of  the  class  of  1831. f 
The  sale  of  this  periodical  was  good  because  of  its  mys- 
terious origin.  Many  of  these  publications  were  abu- 
sive and  scurrilous,  like  The  Little  Gentleman  and  Grid- 

*  Cutting,  George  R.     Student  Life  at  Amherst  College,  pp. 
66-70. 

f  Yale  Book,  vol.  i,  p.  347. 


1154  STUDENT  LIFE  AND  CUSTOMS. 

iron  of  Yale;  others  more  kindly  humorous,  like  The 
Mummy  Monster  and  The  Boule  Dogue  of  the  Univer- 
sity of  Pennsylvania.* 

The  monthly  literary  magazine,  on  the  other  hand, 
is  conspicuous  for  its  dignity  and  heaviness  of  manner. 
"  It  must  be  strictly  literary  in  character;  propriety  and 
taste  forbid  that  it  should  intermingle  with  the  facts 
and  feelings  of  the  world  at  large.  Discarding  politics, 
business,  and  polemics,  it  must  be  sustained  as  a  thing  of 
letters  and  taste."  f  Its  prose  articles  were  written  in 
a  ponderous  style  of  the  Johnsonese  order,  which 
tended  toward  bombast,  personified  the  virtues,  and 
feared  to  call  a  spade  a  spade.  The  subjects  for  the 
leading  articles  were  general  and  elevating  to  a  degree 
rather  amusing  to  a  modern  reader.  Imagine  a  modern 
junior  trying  his  hand  on  "  Classical  Learning,"  "  Na- 
tional Defence,"  "  The  Possibility  of  the  Eeturn  of  the 
Dark  Ages,"  "  Mathematical  Learning,"  and  "  Sociabil- 
ity and  Ceremony."  In  the  treatment  of  these  topics 
the  standpoint  is  that  of  the  orator  and  statesman  rather 
than  the  man  of  letters  or  the  scientist.  The  ideas  of  the 
author  were  merely  the  common-sense  reaction  of  a  man 
of  ordinary  intelligence  clothed  in  vague  and  high- 
sounding  language.  Most  of  these  productions  were 
also  remarkable  for  their  exuberant  patriotism.  Be- 
sides the  leading  articles,  these  magazines  published 
philosophic  sketches  and  verse.  The  philosophic 
sketches  are  much  after  the  manner  of  Easselas  and  dis- 
course of  the  vanities  of  life  under  such  titles  as,  "  On 
Emily,"  "  Money,"  "  Environment,"  "  Love,  Courtship, 

*  Schelling,  Felix  E.  Organizations  within  the  University,  in 
F.  N.  Thorpe's  Benjamin  Franklin  and  the  University  of  Penn- 
sylvania, p.  415. 

f  Reminiscences  of  Scenes  and  Characters  in  College,  by  a 
Graduate  of  Yale,  Class  of  1831,  p.  81. 


STUDENT  LIFE  IN  REVOLUTIONARY  PERIOD.     155 

and  Marriage."  The  verse  is  bad,  consisting  of  heavy 
Latin  odes  and  clumsy  translations  of  Horace.  Occa- 
sionally, on  the  last  page,  there  appear  a  few  items 
concerning  the  college  world,  but  a  modern  reader  can 
not  but  be  struck  with,  the  total  lack  of  the  picturesque 
and  the  local.  Most  of  the  articles  might  have  been 
written  at  Calcutta  for  anything  that  the  reader  per- 
ceives to  the  contrary.  The  general  impression  which 
perusal  leaves  on  the  mind  is  that  of  a  compromise  be- 
tween Johnson^s  Tatler  and  the  early  numbers  of  the 
Edinburgh  Eeview. 

The  first  periodical  of  this  type  which  has  come 
down  to  us  is  The  Harvard  Lyceum  (1810-'ll).  The 
editors  announced  that  the  subject  of  American  litera- 
ture would  receive  particular  attention  both  in  regard 
to  its  comparative  and  its  absolute  state,  and  the  causes 
which  placed  it  in  its  present  condition.  To  this  end 
forensic  discussions,  the  solutions  of  curious  and  in- 
teresting mathematical  problems,  studies  in  natural  his- 
tory and  the  classics,  and  essays  of  moral  and  religious 
import  are  all  solicited.  The  editors  throw  incidental 
light  on  their  political  views  by  remarking  that  science 
and  literature  seem  to  be  all  that  is  old-fashioned  and 
good  that  we  have  left :  "  They  have  flourished  even 
from  the  manure  of  the  French  guillotine."  A  mock 
heroic  in  ten  books,  describing  a  journey  along  the 
coast  of  the  Northern  States,  was  the  special  feature  of 
The  Lyceum,  which  was  otherwise  marked  by  a  general 
spirit  of  heaviness. 

The  romantic  note  predominates  in  the  first  num- 
ber of  The  Yale  Literary  Magazine,  published  in  1837; 
the  influence  of  Scott  and  Byron  is  seen  on  every  page. 
The  titles  of  some  of  the  leading  stories  run  as  follows: 
"Love's  Difficulty,"  a  dramatic^sketch;  "The  Trial  of 
Love,"  "  A  Fragment  of  an  Unfinished  Tragedy,"  "  The 
Skeleton  of  Tooloola,"  and  "  The  Fatal  Oath,  a  Frag- 


156  STUDENT  LIFE  AND  CUSTOMS. 

ment  of  an  Unpublished  Drama."  The  general  articles 
are  represented  by  such  subjects  as  "  Destiny/'  "  The 
Pleasures  of  the  Imagination/'  "  Ancient  and  Modern 
Eepublics."  The  political  articles  are  more  to  the 
point  than  in  The  Lyceum,  and  references  to  student 
life  are  more  numerous,  although  even  here  they  form  a 
small  part  of  the  magazine.  The  early  volumes  of  The 
Yale  Literary  Magazine  are  fair  imitations  of  the  period- 
ical literature  of  the  times. 

To  edit  or  contribute  to  the  college  magazine  was 
one  of  the  common  avenues  to  college  fame  or  notoriety. 
The  writer  stood  on  a  pedestal  just  a  step  lower  down  in 
the  scale  than  the  orator.  A  literary  editorship  was  one 
of  the  coveted  class  honours  at  Yale.  Some  of  the  more 
conservative  critics  like  Bristed  and  the  graduate  of 
1821  might  question  the  value  of  so  much  practice  in 
fine  writing,  or  carp  at  the  waste  of  time,  but  to  the  un- 
dergraduate world  such  editorial  experience,  together 
with  oratory,  seemed  the  most  useful  feature  of  educa- 
tion. Not  the  lack  of  enthusiasm  but  the  small  size  of 
the  colleges  and  the  poverty  of  many  students  were  re- 
sponsible for  the  failure  of  so  many  journalistic  enter- 
prises. The  list  of  college  editors  during  this  and  the 
following  period  (1800-'70)  includes  the  names  of 
Edward  Everett,  William  M.  Evarts,  Andrew  D.  White, 
D.  C.  Gilman,  and  Phillips  Brooks. 

Previous  to  this  section  we  have  treated  of  the  im- 
portant and  typical  associations,  those  which  are  in  a 
peculiar  sense  characteristic  of  student  life.  In  ad- 
dition to  these  there  has  been  a  number  of  student  clubs 
of  minor  importance  and  connected  by  closer  bonds 
to  the  outside  world.  Such  are  the  religious,  philan- 
thropic, political,  musical,  professional,  and  industrial 
associations.  While  they  are  of  minor  importance,  their 
frequency  and  persistence  forbid  their  total  exclusion. 

e.  Religious  Societies. — The  most  important  societies 


STUDENT  LIFE  IN  REVOLUTIONARY  PERIOD.     157 

of  this  class  are  the  religious  circles  which  were  formed 
in  American  colleges  in  the  first  decades  of  the  nine- 
teenth century.  Previously  the  atmosphere  of  the  col- 
lege had  been  so  predominantly  ecclesiastical  and  theo- 
logical that  there  was  no  room  for  voluntary  associa- 
tions. Their  rise  was  due  to  the  spread  of  what  may  be 
called  the  emotional  type  of  religious  experience  which 
resulted  from  the  evangelical  movement  of  Whitefield 
and  Wesley.  The  formal  legalistic  conceptions  of  the 
early  Puritans  found  expression  in  long  and  frequent 
public  services  rather  than  in  private  gatherings  for  the 
comparison  of  emotional  experiences.  In  a  majority  of 
instances  '^  the  societies  of  inquiry  or  praying  circles  " 
were  the  direct  results  of  revivals.  Another  operating 
cause  was  the  prevalence  of  sceptical  views  among  the 
students,  due  largely  to  French  Eevolutionary  influence. 
The  governing  body  of  the  college  was,  with  the 
exception  of  one  or  two  institutions  like  South  Carolina 
College,  distinctively  Christian  and  denominational,  but 
the  students  frequently  went  to  the  other  extreme. 
Princeton  is  now  the  stronghold  of  orthodoxy,  but  of 
the  Princeton  students  of  that  period  we  are  told  by  Mr. 
Wallace  that  "  French  scepticism  was  carefully  cher- 
ished by  the  young  men  as  the  badge  of  polite  learning 
and  freedom.  The  gay  and  reckless  spirit  which  accom- 
panied this  philosophy  of  life  was  not  wanting.  It  was 
necessary  to  ride  hard,  drink  deep,  and  fear  nothing. 
At  one  time  there  were  only  twelve  students  at  Prince- 
ton wdio  acknowledged  their  adherence  to  the  old  faith, 
and  even  so  late  as  1841  the  little  band  of  Christians 
were  dubbed  religiosi/'  *  At  Washington  College, 
Pennsylvania,  students  of  a  religious  character  were 
called  monkeys  and  lapears.f     The  tendency  was  by 

*  Wallace,  G.  R.     Princeton  Sketches,  p.  78. 

t  Hall,  B.  H.     A  Collection  of  College  Words  and  Customs. 


158  STUDENT  LIFE  AND  CUSTOMS. 

no  means  confined  to  these  two  colleges,  and  was  strong- 
est in  those  institutions  where  the  Southern  element  was 
particularly  numerous.  At  no  time  in  American  his- 
tory has  the  line  been  so  closely  drawn  between  the 
Church  and  the  world. 

On  December  11,  1802,  the  Saturday  Evening  Ee- 
ligious  Society  in  Harvard  College  was  organized  for 
the  express  purpose  of  promoting  the  growth  of  practi- 
cal and  experimental  religion.  It  was  founded  largely 
through  the  efforts  of  Eliphalet  Pearson,  Professor  of 
Hebrew  and  Oriental  Languages  at  Harvard,  and  after- 
ward one  of  the  founders  of  Andover  Seminary  and  a 
leader  of  the  Evangelical  and  Orthodox  wing  of  Con- 
gregationalism. The  society  was  formed  for  the  ex- 
press purpose  of  arresting  "  the  decay  of  religion  with- 
in our  walls.''  In  1819  a  second  association  was  formed, 
known  as  the  Wednesday  Evening  Society.  In  1821 
the  two  united  under  the  name  of  The  Society  of  Chris- 
tian Brethren  in  Harvard  University.  Only  those  were 
admitted  who  believed  in  the  doctrines  of  deprav- 
ity and  regeneration,  in  the  existence  of  three  persons, 
Father,  Son,  and  Holy  Ghost,  the  atonement,  and  the 
mediation  of  Christ;  and  could  also  furnish  to  themselves 
and  others  satisfactory  evidence  of  a  saving  change  of 
heart.  Each  member  signed  this  confession.  One  im- 
portant element  in  the  work  of  the  Christian  Brethren 
was  a  valuable  library.* 

Eeligion  was  at  a  very  low  ebb  in  Princeton  circles 
at  the  opening  of  the  second  war  with  England  (1813). 
In  this  year  four  students  began  a  prayer  meeting,  and 
succeeded  in  inaugurating  a  revival  in  college  in  which 
forty  or  fifty  students  were  converted.  The  Philadel- 
phian  Society,  the  direct  outcome  of  this  movement,  was 

*  Cooke,  Joseph  Pratt.  The  Christian  Brethren,  in  Harvard 
Book,  vol.  ii. 


STUDENT  LIFE  IN  REVOLUTIONARY  PERIOD.     I59 

formed  in  18,25.  Confined  to  professors  of  religion,  tlie 
society  exerted  influence  abroad  by  tlie  distribution  of 
tracts  on  the  first  Sabbath  of  each  month.  The  subject 
of  missions  was  also  to  be  brought  before  the  society 
monthly,  followed  by  a  collection.  Among  the  early 
rules  of  the  society  was  the  following:  "  The  me^ibers 
shall  hold  themselves  bound  in  honour  to  make  no  un- 
necessary disclosures  of  any  rules  or  transactions  of  the 
fraternity."  For  some  time  the  society  met  with  con- 
siderable opposition,  even  from  religious  students,  on 
the  ground  that  it  was  a  secret  organization.  In  1826  se- 
crecy was  somewhat  relaxed,  and  prayer  meetings  were 
held  on  Sunday  morning,  open  to  all  the  students.  A 
Thursday  evening  lecture  was  instituted,  which  was  ad- 
dressed by  members  of  the  faculty  and  by  the  resident 
clergymen.    In  1855  a  valuable  library  was  destroyed.* 

The  Theological  Society  of  Amherst  was  formally 
organized  in  1831;  its  name  was  afterrN^ard  changed  to 
the  Society  of  Inquiry.  The  members  met  informally 
on  Sabbath  evenings,  in  a  quiet  way  consulted  with  each 
other,  compared  data  which  they  had  acquired,  com- 
municated intelligence,  and  spent  a  few  moments  in 
prayer.  Members  were  few,  and  the  influence  exerted 
by  the  society  was  chiefly  felt  by  its  own  members  and 
was  never  great.  Its  object  has  been  to  form  a  bond 
of  union  and  sympathy  between  Christian  men  in  col- 
lege, and  in  this  it  succeeded.  The  society  corre- 
sponded with  similar  organizations  in  other  colleges  and 
with  missionaries  in  the  field.  Its  museum  of  curiosi- 
ties in  time  grew  to  be  quite  extensive,  consisting  of 
idols,  implements  of  various  kinds,  costumes,  and  a 
multiplicity  of  other  things  illustrating  the  religious 
beliefs,  and  the  arts  and  customs  of  foreign  lands.    The 

*  Dnffield,  John  Thomas.    The  Philadelphian  Society,  Prince- 
ton Book. 


160  STUDENT  LIFE  AND  CUSTOMS. 

society  possessed  a  theological  library  of  two  hundred 
and  fifty  volumes,  and  its  tables  were  covered  with  a  lib- 
eral supply  of  religious  papers.* 

At  Williams  the  Theological  Society  dated  from  the 
first  year  of  the  century.  By  its  side  existed  a  mission- 
ary organization,  the  Mills  Society  of  Inquiry  (1820), 
the  members  of  which  were  considered  pledged  for  mis- 
sionary work.  Both  these  societies  were  the  results  of 
revivals.  The  Missionary  Lyceum  of  Wesleyan  was  not 
organized  until  1834.  The  Theological  Society  of  Bow- 
doin  was  in  existence  in  1812;  its  object  was  more 
moral  than  theological.  It  owned  a  valuable  library, 
which  was  lost  in  the  great  conflagration  of  1821.  By 
its  side  existed  The  Praying  Circle,  a  distinctly  reli- 
gious organization.  The  great  revival  of  1821  of  Brown 
University  resulted  in  the  formation  of  the  religious 
society  which  held  meetings  in  the  college  chapel.  Six 
years  later  the  Society  for  Missionary  Inquiry  appeared 
in  the  field,  w^hich  aimed  to  supply  its  members  with 
information  respecting  the  moral  and  religious  condi- 
tion of  the  world.  A  Moral  Society  which  existed  at 
Yale  in  the  twenties  was  a  rather  lifeless  affair,  although 
its  debates  were  said  to  be  interesting,  and  access  to  its 
library  a  privilege,  f 

Closely  allied  to  the  Missionary  Society  in  aim 
was  an  occasional  organization  intended  for  some  be- 
nevolent or  philanthropic  purpose.  In  1815  there  was 
instituted  at  Bowdoin  a  benevolent  society  made  up  of 
undergraduates,  graduates,  and  friends  of  the  college, 

*  Cutting,  George  R.     Student  Life  at  Amherst,  p.  60. 

\  Durfee,  C,  History  of  Williams  College,  p.  117;  Steiner,  B. 
C,  History  of  Education  in  Connecticut,  p.  279 ;  Cleaveland  and 
Packard,  History  of  Bowdoin  College,  p.  29 ;  Tolman,  W.  H„  His- 
tory of  Higher  Education  in  Rhode  Island,  p.  197;  Reminiscences 
of  Scenes  and  Characters  in  College,  by  a  Graduate  of  Yale,  Class 
of  1821,  p.  107. 


STUDENT  LIFE  IN   REVOLUTIONARY  PERIOD.     161 

which  aimed  to  loan  money  to  needy  students.  On  the 
evening  before  Commencement  a  public  address  was  de- 
livered before  the  society  in  church,  after  which  a  con- 
tribution was  taken  for  its  benefit.  "  The  liberally 
minded  made  it  an  object  to  be  present  for  the  advan- 
tage of  this  contribution."  It  aided  a  number  of  stu- 
dents, and  perished  after  a  useful  existence  of  twelve 
years.* 

During  the  same  period  an  amusing  experiment  in 
the  way  of  a  Plain  Dress  or  Lycurgan  Society  was  tried 
at  Yale.  At  the  outset  the  society  simply  aimed  to  en- 
courage plainness  of  apparel  and  simplicity  of  life  and 
manners  in  opposition  to  luxury  and  effeminacy.  The 
members  interested  in  the  cause  were  to  exert  an  influ- 
ence by  setting  a  good  example.  In  time  the  society 
was  induced  to  adopt  a  distinctive  dress,  a  sort  of  rus- 
tic cousin  to  the  ordinary  garb  of  the  Quakers.  The 
costume  was  so  unbecoming  to  men  of  large  and 
awkward  frames  that  it  caused  the  downfall  of  the 
entire  enterprise.  The  Lycurgan  Society  checked 
extravagance  for  a  time  and  was  imitated  in  other  col- 
leges, f 

The  Anti-Yenenean  Society  of  Amherst  found  a 
common  bond  of  unity  for  its  members  in  the  forswear- 
ing of  ardent  spirits,  wine,  opium,  and  tobacco,  as 
articles  of  luxury  and  diet.  This  organization  was  first 
formed  in  1830,  and  included  one  hundred  and  eight- 
een out  of  the  two  hundred  and  eight  students  in  col- 
lege at  the  time  of  its  foundation,  and  for  a  number  of 
years  afterward  included  about  three  fourths  of  the 
membership  of  each  class.  The  society  was  something 
of  the  nature  of  a  pious  fiction,  as  no  meetings  were  ever 

*  Cleaveland  and  Packard.     History  of  Bowdoin  College,  p.  29. 
f  Reminiscences  of  Scenes  and  Characters  in  College,  by  a 
Graduate  of  Yale  in  1821,  p.  127. 
11 


162  STUDENT  LIFE  AND   CUSTOMS. 

held,  although  the  members  were  awarded  elegant 
diplomas  at  the  end  of  their  college  course.* 

/.  Political  Cluhs. — The  political  parties  of  this  pe- 
riod had  not  yet  developed  that  complex  network  of 
machinery  for  carrying  elections  which  is  now  one  of  the 
marked  features  of  contemporary  campaigns,  so  no  at- 
tempt was  made  by  the  politician  to  organize  the  stu- 
dents. The  latter  were  so  representative  of  the  com- 
munity at  large  that  their  political  opinions  coincided 
with  those  of  the  parties  from  which  they  came.  The 
few  societies  of  a  political  character  which  existed  at 
this  period  were  half  philanthropic  in  their  aims  and 
exercised  almost  no  influence.  At  Amherst,  where  the 
most  complete  inventory  and  history  of  student  organi- 
zations have  been  made,  we  find  records  of  a  Coloniza- 
tion Society  (1828),  which  aimed  to  support  a  colony  of 
negroes  in  Liberia;  an  x\ntislavery  Society,  which  ex- 
isted for  three  years  (1832-35),  until  it  was  suppressed 
by  the  faculty,  and  a  Peace  Society  (1838),  before  which 
addresses  Avere  occasionally  delivered.  Colonization  so- 
cieties, and  occasionally  an  antislavery  society,  which  in- 
evitably caused  trouble,  existed  elsewhere,  f  In  general 
it  may  be  worth  noting  that,  as  in  other  English -speak- 
ing lands,  the  students,  instead  of  being  a  revolutionary 
and  disturbing  element,  like  those  in  Continental  Eu- 
rope, were  inclined  to  be  more  conservative  politically 
than  the  average  citizen. 

g.  Military  Organizations.  —  The  first  military  or- 
ganization at  Harvard  was  the  Martimercurian  Band, 
which  existed  in  1793,  but  how  long  before  and  after 
this  date  I  have  not  been  able  to  discover.  The  Har- 
vard Washington  Corps  was  the  outcome  of  the  mili- 
tary enthusiasm  enkindled  by  the  approach  of  the  War 

*  Cutting,  George  H.    Student  Life  at  Amherst,  p.  55. 
f  WM..  p.  94. 


STUDENT  LIFE  IN  REVOLUTIONARY  PERIOD.     163 

of  181.2,  and  lasted  twenty-two  years.  Membership 
was  confined  to  the  senior  and  junior  classes,  the 
juniors  serving  as  privates  and  the  seniors  as  officers. 
At  first  its  organization  was  that  of  an  ordinary  militia 
company,  but  it  afterward  became  a  battalion.  In 
accuracy  and  variety  of  military  movements  the  corps 
excelled  every  militia  company  in  the  neighborhood  of 
Boston,  and  received  the  commendation  of  trained 
soldiers.  The  company  was  allowed  two  grand  pa- 
rades a  year;  after  some  experience,  visits  to  Boston 
were  prohibited.  The  chief  offices  were  much  sought 
for  by  the  leading  members  of  the  class,  the  cap- 
taincy being  the  chief  honour  of  the  year.  The  military 
office  brought  with  it  a  strong  sense  of  dignity,  and  the 
men  committed  no  offences  when  trusted  in  their  mili- 
tary capacities.  Still,  it  was  thought  by  the  college  au- 
thorities to  be  favourable  to  dissipation,  which,  together 
with  lack  of  interest,  led  to  its  death  in  1833.*  A 
similar  organization  existed  at  Trinity  College,  Hart- 
ford. 

h.  Musical  Societies. — The  first  musical  organization 
concerning  which  we  have  a  record  was  The  Singing 
Club  of  Harvard  College,  which  was  formed  in  1786  and 
continued  to  1803.  Its  programme  was  largely  devoted 
to  psalmody,  with  some  slight  attention  to  instrumental 
music.  The  Pierian  Sodality,  which  still  continues,  was 
founded  in  1808;  its  social  features  were  more  strongly 
marked  than  the  musical.  The  Sodality  was  divided  into 
two  parts;  one  section  specialized  on  light  sentimental 
music  for  serenades,  and  the  other  part  prepared  for  col- 
lege exhibition.  A  preparatory  club,  known  as  the  Ari- 
onic,  was  instituted  for  novices,  from  which  promotions 
were  made  to  the  Sodality.    Low  as  was  the  standard  of 


*  Lothrop,  S.  K.    Harvard  "Washington  Corps,  in  Harvard  Book, 
vol.  ii. 


164:  STUDENT  LIFE  AND  CUSTOMS. 

the  Sodality,  it  was  often  on  the  point  of  perishing  for 
lack  of  members;  at  one  time  only  six  in  a  class  of  sev- 
enty played  sufficiently  well  to  secure  membership.  The 
Harvard  Musical  Association  grew  out  of  the  Pierian 
Sodality,  but  afterward  confined  itself  to  graduates.* 

At  Yale  a  musical  society  existed  in  the  year  1812, 
but  the  particulars  of  its  activity  at  that  early  period 
have  not  come  down  to  us.  Some  time  after  its  forma- 
tion it  assumed  the  name  Beethoven,  and  furnished 
music  at  prayers  and  Sunday  exercises.  It  was  fre- 
quently known  as  the  College  Choir.  The  orchestral 
portion  consisted  of  flutes,  tenor  violins,  violoncello  and 
double  bass,  "  a  most  sonorous  ophicleide,"  a  big  drum, 
with  numerous  guitars  and  Brazilian  mandolins.  The 
Beethoven  Society  likewise  indulged  in  numerous  sere- 
nades.! The  Pasan  Band  of  Amherst,  organized  in  1824, 
was  a  regularly  constituted  society  with  by-laws  and  offi- 
cers. The  instruments  were  furnished  by  contributions 
from  the  students  and  faculty,  in  return  for  which  the 
band  furnished  music  gratuitously  on  Commencement 
Day  and  on  other  state  occasions.  The  graduating  class 
supplied  a  jug  of  port  wine  for  the  refreshment  of  the 
weary  musicians  on  Commencement.  Contemporary 
with  the  band  there  existed  the  Lutheran  Society 
(1822),  the  special  function  of  which  was  to  provide 
sacred  music  for  Commencement.  The  Beethoven  So- 
ciety of  Amherst  employed  outside  musical  teachers 
and  endeavoured  to  cultivate  the  musical  talent  of  the 
students.]:  Similar  societies  existed  at  Bowdoin  *  and 
elsewhere. 

*  Dwight,  J.  S.  The  Pierian  Sodality,  Harvard  Book,  vol.  ii, 
p.  368. 

f  Stoeekel,  G.  J.  Music  and  Musical  Societies,  Yale  Book,  vol. 
ii,  p.  482. 

t  Cuttino:,  G.  n.     Student  Life  at  Amherst,  pp.  89-91. 

*  Cleaveland  and  Packard.     History  of  Bowdoin  College,  p.  30. 


STUDENT  LIFE  IN  REVOLUTIONARY  PERIOD.     165 

i.  Scientific  Clubs. — The  Harvard  Natural  History- 
Society  came  into  existence  May  4,  1837;  all  members  of 
the  junior  and  senior  classes  who  were  interested  in 
natural  history  belonged  to  it.  The  scientific  interest  of 
the  members  centred  in  the  collection  and  mounting  of 
specimens,  ornithology,  entomology,  and  botany  were  the 
favourite  branches.  Cambridge  was  at  this  period  an  ex- 
cellent collecting  ground,  altiiough  members  were  by  no 
means  dependent  on  their  own  collections.  The  society 
met  in  the  members'  rooms  every  other  week  to  listen  to 
lectures  delivered  on  some  subject  of  interest.  These 
lectures  were  simple  talks  which  made  the  centre  of  dis- 
cussion, although  the  chief  interest  lay  in  comparing 
notes  on  collections.* 

A  club  of  like  purpose,  organized  at  Amherst  in  1822, 
was  known  as  the  Linnaean  Society.  Botany,  geology, 
and  mineralogy  were  the  favourite  subjects.  Papers 
bearing  on  various  scientific  topics  were  presented  at 
the  meetings.  Much  time  was  also  spent  at  these  gath- 
erings in  analyzing  specimens  which  the  members  had 
found  in  the  Connecticut  Valley.  On  one  occasion  the 
club  offered  a  prize  of  scientific  books  to  that  member 
who  should  collect  the  finest  herbarium.  Interest 
waned  and  the  society  died  out,  only  to  be  resurrected  in 
1831,  as  the  Society'^ of  Natural  History.  The  new  as- 
sociation was  a  select  body,  open  only  to  eight  members 
from  each  of  the  three  higher  classes;  the  qualifications 
were  "a  good  moral  character,  a  respectable  standing 
in  one's  class,  and  a  distinguished  reputation  as  a  natu- 
ralist." Afterward  a  law  went  into  force  that  one  sixth 
of  each  class  should  be  elected  to  membership.  The 
society  adopted  a  splendid  badge  in  the  form  of  a  gold 
kev  of  hexahedral  form,  with  "  N.  L.  D.,  1831,"  on  one 


*  Hale.  Edward  Everett.    The  Harvard  Natural  History  So- 
ciety, Harvard  Book,  vol.  ii,  p.  387. 


166  STUDENT  LIFE  AND  CUSTOMS. 

side,  and  a  small  scroll  containing  an  engraving  of  the 
word  "  Nature  "  and  the  owner's  name  on  the  other. 
The  proceedings  of  the  society  were  secret,  and  con- 
sisted, as  before,  of  dissertations,  analyses,  and  general 
information  on  natural  history.  A  library  and  cabinet 
were  established,  the  scientific  periodicals  of  the  day  were 
subscribed  for,  and  correspondence  maintained  with  mis- 
sionaries in  foreign  countries  and  with  distinguished 
naturalists.  Upon  graduation  it  was  customary  for 
each  member  of  the  society  to  add  a  book  to  the  library. 
Among  the  famous  members  of  the  society  was  Henry 
Ward  Beecher,  who  made  phrenology  the  centre  of  his 
interest.  The  club  lived  not  quite  twenty  years,  and  died 
in  1848  because  of  the  increased  facilities  for  scientific 
instruction  in  the  college.*  The  Society  of  Natural 
History  at  Williams  College  sent  out  a  scientific  expe- 
dition which  made  large  collections  in  Nova  Scotia,  f 
At  Bowdoin  two  short-lived  scientific  organizations.  The 
Caluvian  and  Alpha  Phi,  collected  cabinets  of  minerals 
and  a  few  paintings,  which  on  their  demise  were  turned 
over  to  the  college.  J 

Another  form  of  professional  activity  was  found  in 
the  medical  colleges  where  clubs  arose  for  the  purpose 
of  supplementing  the  regular  courses  and  of  preparing 
the  students  for  examination  by  quizzes.  The  Medical 
Institute  of  the  University  of  Pennsylvania  was  char- 
tered in   1817,   and  has   had  a   continuous   existence 


*  Cutting,  George  R.     Student  Life  at  Amherst,  pp.  57,  58. 
t  Durfee.  C.     History  of  Williams  College,  p.  218. 

X  Cleaveland  and  Packard.    History  of  Bowdoin  College,  p.  28. 

*  Schelling,  Felix  E.  Organizations  within  the  University,  in 
F.  N.  Thorpe's  Benjamin  Franklin  and  the  University  of  Penn- 
sylvania, p.  412. 


CHAPTER   IV. 

STUDENT    SOCIETIES    DURIXG    THE    TRANSITION    PERIOD, 

1840-1870. 

§§1  AND  2.    The  Fraternity  and  Athletic  Club 

DURING    THE    TRANSITION    PeRIOD. 

The  fraternity  was  the  representative  growth  of  the 
transition  period  from  1840  to  1870.  We  have  de- 
scribed in  preceding  sections  the  origin  and  growth 
of  the  secret-society  idea.  In  this  chapter  we  will  pass 
over  rapidly  the  detailed  history  of  the  separate  so- 
cieties, which  is  of  no  particular  interest  to  the  gen- 
eral reader,  and  which  Baird  has  already  described  in 
a  manner  that  leaves  nothing  to  be  desired,  but  will  lay 
chief  stress  on  the  controversial  aspects  of  the  new  order 
of  societies,  in  addition  to  describing  the  peculiar  sys- 
tems of  secret  societies  which  grew  up  at  Harvard  and 
Yale. 

Harvard  has  developed  a  society  system  of  its  own, 
making  sociability  and  congeniality  the  basis  of  mem- 
bership, founded  largely  though  not  exclusively  on  a 
class  basis;  these  organizations  have  been  of  slow 
growth.  Of  these  clubs  there  are  three  classes:  the 
sophomore  societies,  the  senior  societies,  and  general 
societies. 

The  Institute  of  1770,  the  older  sophomore  society, 
was  originally  a  debating  club  of  the  seniors,  organized 
by  the  class  of  1771.     In  1825  two  rivals  of  the  same 

167 


1G8  STUDENT  LIFE  AND  CUSTOMS. 

aims  coalesced,  making  it  the  only  society  in  the  field 
for  many  years.  At  first  a  senior  society,  it  became  a 
junior,  then  a  sophomore  organization.  While  its  so- 
cial duties  encroached  on  its  original  functions,  still,  at 
the  end  of  the  period  under  discussion  it  preserved  to  a 
certain  extent  its  character  as  a  debating  society;  be- 
cause of  this  fact  it  can  hardly  be  considered  a  typical 
Harvard  organization.  In  the  late  sixties  its  programme 
was  described  as  follows:  "  The  entertainment  was  of 
a  literary  character,  consisting  of  debates  not  always 
too  eloquent  or  brilliant;  a  lecture,  usually  a  fair  sopho- 
more production;  and  a  paper  made  up  of  original  con- 
tributions which  perhaps  compared  favourably  with  sim- 
ilar efforts  at  young  ladies'  seminaries.  It  was  not  so 
much  the  entertainment  that  was  enjoyed  by  the  young 
fellows  as  the  meeting  together  and  getting  acquainted, 
the  freedom  of  the  hour,  and  the  sense  of  proprietor- 
ship." Its  meetings  were  the  only  opportunity  afforded 
the  class  to  form  an  estimate  of  the  talents  of  the  dif- 
ferent men  until  the  senior  societies  were  reached.* 

A  rival  organization  with  similar  ends  was  organized 
in  1886,  known  as  the  Everett  Athenaum,  which  piade 
a  specialty  of  music  and  theatricals. 

The  senior  societies  are  much  more  noteworthy. 
The  oldest  of  these  is  The  Famous  Hasty  Pudding 
Club,  founded  in  1795,  "to  cherish  the  feelings  of 
friendship  and  patriotism."  The  name  of  the  club  Fas 
derived  from  that  clause  in  the  constitution  which  pro- 
vides that  "  two  members  in  alphabetical  order  shall 
provide  a  pot  of  hasty  pudding  for  every  meeting." 
After  a  brief  and  unsuccessful  experience  as  a  debating 
society,  the  custom  of  mock  trials  was  introduced,  which 
lasted  until  1847-^48;  Next  in  order  came  the  pres- 
entation of  regular  plays,  which  began  with  Bombastes 


*  Tripp.     Student  Life  at  Harvard,  p.  288. 


SOCIETIES  DURING   TRANSITION   PERIOD.      169 

Furioso,  in  1845.  Since  that  date  the  production  of 
two  or  three  lighter  plays  each  year  has  represented  the 
literary  side  of  the  club's  activity.  In  1834  the  club 
became  a  secret  organization  in  reality,  and  an  elaborate 
and  amusing  initiation  ceremony  was  arranged.  Each 
year's  membership  chose  their  successors.* 

The  0.  K.  Society  arose  from  an  opposition  to  the 
Greek  fraternity  system  at  Harvard  in  the  year  1858. 
The  membership  was  confined  to  sixteen  men  of  the 
senior  class.  The  society  has  never,  with  one  excep- 
tional period,  occupied  rooms  of  its  own,  but  has  met 
at  the  rooms  of  its  different  members  in  rotation.  Dec- 
lamation and  the  reading  of  original  papers  formed  the 
staple  programme  of  the  early  exercises,  great  attention 
being  given  to  elocution  and  oratory.  For  a  number  of 
3'ears  theatricals  played  an  ever-increasing  part  in  the 
exercises  until  18 TO,  when  they  were  entirely  excluded 
by  a  new  constitution. 

At  one  time  the  0.  K.  endeavoured  to  play  a  part 
in  class  politics,  to  the  great  detriment  of  the  order, 
which  finally  decided  not  to  interfere  in  the  elections. 
At  this  period,  the  late  sixties,  there  Avas  an  intense 
rivalry  between  the  0.  K.  and  the  Hasty  Pudding.  The 
initiation  ceremonies  of  this  organization,  which  we 
include  below,  are  an  interesting  specimen  of  under- 
graduate rhetoric,  t 


*  See  Introduction  to  the  Eleventh  Catalo^e  of  the  Officers  and 
Members  of  the  Hasty  Pudding  Chib  in  Harvard  College,  pp.  5,  6. 

f  On  the  entrance  of  the  neophyte  the  President  inquires, 
"  Whence  and  what  are  ye,  execrable  shape  ? 

Verily  I  bring  unto  thee  the  elect,  the  chosen  one,  arrayed  in 
clean  garments,  to  await  thy  bidding. 

President. — Has  he  performed  his  duty  ? 

Messenger. — Since  set  of  sun,  his  labour  knew  no  pause  nor 
intermission. 

President. — 'Tis  well.     Let  him   be  seated.     Time  will  tell. 


170  STUDENT  LIFE  AND  CUSTOMS. 

Pi  Eta,  founded  in  1866,  was  not  permanently  sanc- 
tioned by  the  faculty  until  1869.  Its  success  was  due 
to  the  increasing  size  of  the  class,  which  made  a  second 
society  a  necessity.  It  early  secured  permanent  quar- 
ters which  were  elaborately  fitted  up.  The  Signet,  the 
last  prominent  senior  society,  was  founded  in  1870,  at 
the  very  end  of  the  period.  It  was  small  in  size  and  de- 
voted to  literary  work  of  a  high  character.  Theatrical 
performances  were  excluded.* 

The  Porcellian  Club,  the  first  distinctly  Harvard 

But  first  our  Grand  Astrologer  must  read  the  meaning  mystic  of 
the  starry  hosts.     Strangers  attend. 

Grand  Astrologer. — Brothers,  since  the  red  sun  dipped  in  the 
glowing  west  his  fiery  disk,  spangling  the  azure  vault  in  quick 
succession  as  darkness  spread  her  veil,  I've  watched  revolving 
planets,  fixed  stars,  and  blushing  Luna  spring  forth  to  life  and 
light. 

Impending  evil  then  methought,  to  my  prophetic  eye,  glared 
down  from  out  the  starry  constellations ;  Mars  glowed  with  fiery 
rage,  and  Sirius  went  barking  through  the  sky  with  angry  blood- 
shot eye  that  told  of  torrid  equatorial  heat.  E'en  Venus's  smile 
was  sickly,  and  great  Jupiter  looked  glum  and  ominous  of  dangers 
dire  and  pestilence  and  woes  unutterable. 

A  comet,  too,  there  was  dragging  behind  infinity  of  tail,  which 
swept  in  hyperbolic  curve  along,  swifter  than  forked  lightning,  as 
though  it  would  annihilate  the  sun  in  greedy  ruin.  The  air  is 
heavy  with  a  coming  woe.  The  laboring  stars  are  pregnant  with 
a  meaning,  strange,  mystic,  weird,  that  puzzles  e'en  a  prophetic 
eye  to  pierce. 

President. — Some  dire  calamity,  methinks,  impends  above  the 
neophytic  heads.     But  hark !    The  High  Pontiff  draws  nigh." 

The  High  Pontiff  proceeds,  in  even  more  direful  language  in- 
duced by  his  inspection  of  the  unlucky  omens  contained  in  the 
entrails  of  a  dorbug,  till  the  trembling  neophyte  is  reduced  to  a 
proper  frame  of  mind ;  when  he  is  subjected  to  a  searching  inter- 
rogation and  allowed  to  read  his  initiation  work.  Harvard  Book, 
vol.  ii,  p.  400. 

*  See  Signet  Society,  in  Harvard  Book,  vol.  ii,  p.  414. 


SOCIETIES  DURING  TRANSITION  PERIOD.      171 

society  to  include  members  of  all  classes,  was  formed  in 
1791.  x\t  that  time  a  number  of  intimate  friends  were 
in  the  habit  of  meeting  in  each  other's  rooms  on  alter- 
nate Friday  nights  for  social  intercourse;  the  exercises 
terminated  with  a  supper.  The  association  was  known 
as  The  Argonauts;  but  one  evening  a  young  pig  was 
roasted  whole,  and  so  successful  was  the  occasion  that 
the  club  was  afterward  known  as  The  Pig  Club.  It  early 
aspired  to  an  exclusive  social  position  and  assumed  the 
title  of  Gentlemen's  Club,  which  it  soon  altered  to 
Porcellian.  The  club  consisted  of  sixteen  members. 
Its  founders  aimed  to  establish  the  society  "  on  some 
of  the  strongest  principles  of  our  nature;  upon  sociabil- 
ity, brotherly  affection,  and  generosity;  and  upon  those 
qualities  of  liberality  and  courtesy  and  that  spirit  of  a 
true  gentleman  which  are  best  expressed  in  the  Greek 
motto  of  the  society."  The  business  affairs  of  the  club 
are  managed  by  three  trustees,  all  of  them  graduates, 
who  hold  in  trust  all  the  property  of  the  club,  includ- 
ing library,  pictures,  and  furniture.  Small  as  the 
membership  has  been,  the  roll  of  graduates  shows  many 
of  the  most  famous  of  the  sons  of  Harvard,  including 
"Wendell  Phillips,  Channing,  Stor}^,  Everett,  Prescott, 
Adams,  Palfrey,  Charles  Sumner,  Oliver  Wendell 
Holmes,  James  Eussell  Lowell,  and  John  Lothrop 
Motley. 

The  A.  D.,  another  purely  social  institution,  was 
organized  in  1826  as  an  honorary  chapter  of  the  Alpha 
Delta  Phi;  as  its  active  organization  was  prohibited  by 
the  Harvard  faculty,  it  became  in  1838  the  honorary 
Yale  chapter.  Eight  years  later  it  received  official 
recognition  from  the  college  authorities  because  of  the 
excellence  of  its  literary  work.  The  anti-fraternity 
movement  of  1859  resulted  in  a  gradual  change.  It 
ceased  to  be  a  chapter  of  a  secret  fraternity  and  became 
a  club  of  the  usual  Harvard  type.  , 


1Y2  STUDENT  LIFE  AND  CUSTOMS. 

The  Yale  system  of  secret  societies  is  much  more 
strongly  organized  and  much  more  extensive  in  its 
operation  than  that  of  Harvard.  During  this  period 
a  rigid  class  basis  was  maintained  throughout,  each  year 
of  the  course  having  its  distinctive  societies.  Without 
detailing  the  growth  of  the  system,  which  discovers  a 
mere  tissue  of  petty  jealousies,  we  will  endeavour  to  de- 
scribe the  Yale  system  as  it  existed  at  the  end  of  the 
period  (1870). 

The  freshman  societies  at  this  time  were  the  Kappa 
Sigma  Epsilon,  representing  careless  literary  excel- 
lence; the  Delta  Kappa,  standing  for  good  fellowship 
and  sociability;  and  the  Gamma  Nu,  an  open  society 
of  hard-working  scholarship.  Practically  all  the  mem- 
bers of  the  freshman  class  belong  to  these  clubs.  A 
systematic  campaign  was  waged  for  months  in  advance 
at  all  the  important  fitting  schools.  Many  men  are 
pledged  long  before  they  reach  New  Haven,  and  a  keen 
struggle  ensues  for  the  possession  of  the  men  from  a 
distance.  The  trains  are  infested  with  representatives 
of  the  various  societies,  who  jump  upon  the  platform  of 
the  moving  cars,  fight  the  brakemen,  incommode  the 
travellers,  and  defy  the  police,  in  the  desire  to  offer  the 
advantage  of  the  best  freshman  society  to  the  incoming 
student. 

A  week  after  the  opening  of  the  term,  when  all  the 
men  are  pledged,  comes  the  initiation.  Each  freshman 
is  taken  in  hand  by  a  particular  sophomore,  who  at  the 
appropriate  moment  guides  him  to  a  building  from 
which  the  sounds  of  pandemonium  are  issuing.  "  A 
red  devil  in  the  passageway,  assisted  by  a  living  skele- 
ton redolent  of  phosphorus,  quickly  blindfolds  him,  and 
he  is  hurried  upward.  When  he  has  reached  an  eleva- 
tion apparently  of  several  hundred  feet,  a  new  element 
in  the  continual  din  assures  him  that  at  last  he  is  in 
the  inquisitorial  hall.     But  just  as  he  begins  to  reply  to 


SOCIETIES  DURING   TRANSITION   PERIOD.      173 

the  last  nonsensical  question  put  by  an  attendant  fiend, 
some  one  jostles  against  him^  and  down,  down,  down  he 
falls,  until  he  strikes  a  blanket  held  in  readiness  for 
him.  Then  he  flies  up  into  the  air  again  amid  admiring 
shouts  of  '  Go  it,  Freshie ! '  '  Well  done.  Sub !  ^  '  Shake 
him  up! '  until  a  new  candidate  demands  the  attention 
of  the  tossers.  Then  he  is  officiously  told  to  rest  him- 
self in  a  chair,  the  seat  of  which  lets  him  down  into  a 
pail  of  water,  though  a  large  sponge  probably  saves  him 
from  actual  wetting;  his  head  and  hands  are  thrust 
through  a  pillory,  and  he  is  reviled  in  that  awkward 
position;  he  is  rolled  in  an  exaggerated  squirrel  wheel, 
a  noose  is  thrown  around  his  neck,  and  he  is  dragged 
beneath  the  guillotine,  when  the  bandage  is  pulled  from 
his  eyes  and  he  glares  upon  the  glittering  knife  of  block- 
tin  which  falls  within  a  foot  of  his  throat  and  can  not 
possibly  go  farther.  Being  thus  executed,  he  is  thrust 
into  a  coffin,  which  is  hammered  upon  with  such  energy 
that  he  is  at  length  recalled  to  life,  pulled  out  again, 
and  made  to  wear  his  coat  with  the  inside  outward. 
This  is  a  sign  that  the  initiation  is  over."  * 

The  exercises  of  these  societies  were  of  a  literary 
character,  consisting  of  debates,  declarations,  and  ora- 
tions. Select  reading,  essays,  and  society  papers  which 
were  the  miscellaneous  productions  of  regularly  chosen 
editors,  were  sometimes  read.  In  conclusion,  a  criti- 
cism of  the  proceedings  is  offered.  Occasionally  a  prize 
debate  varies  the  regular  order  of  proceedings.  Each 
freshman  society  likewise  possesses  its  song  book,  which 
it  pretends  to  conceal.  At  times  the  success  of  mem- 
bers of  the  society  in  some  collegiate  contest  is  cele- 
brated by  a  "  peanut  bum."  A  sack  containing  a  bushel 
or  two  of  peanuts  is  emptied  upon  the  floor  and 
an  indiscriminate  scramble  is  made  for  them  by.  the 

*  Bagg.    Four  Years  at  Yale,  p.  64. 


1Y4  STUDENT  LIFE  AND  CUSTOMS. 

upper-class  guests  and  their  entertainers;  cigars  are  dis- 
tributed, and  in  some  cases  lemonade;  nothing  stronger 
is  found  in  the  freshman  halls.  At  first  a  freshman 
prides  himself  on  his  society  and  its  secrets,  but  gradu- 
ally his  interest  lessens,  and  by  the  third  term  the 
society  work  is  badly  demoralized  by  the  upper-class 
elections. 

The  sophomore  societies,  two  in  number.  Phi  Theta 
Psi  and  Delta  Beta  Xi,  were  much  more  select  in  char- 
acter, containing  less  than  half  of  an  average  class.  The 
members  of  these  societies,  turning  their  backs  on  the 
heavy  literary  performances  of  their  freshman  days,  go 
to  the  other  extreme  and  do  little  in  the  way  of  work 
or  improvement. 

The  halls  of  the  societies  are  club  rooms  where 
the  sophomores  drop  in  on  Friday  nights  to  play 
cards,  smoke  clay  pipes,  and  sip  ale  with  one  another. 
During  this  year  the  loud-mouthed  sporting  element  is 
likely  to  be  in  the  ascendency  while  the  substantial  men 
remain  in  the  background. 

While  these  societies  do  not  actually  encourage  dis- 
sipation, they  can  fairly  be  charged  with  being  frivo- 
lous and  purposeless  in  character.  The  members  of  a 
sophomore  society  look  back  on  their  connection  with 
it  as  a  joke,  and  to  solicit  money  from  them  for  it  would 
be  a  hopeless  task. 

Through  the  three  junior  societies — ^the  Psi  Upsilon, 
Alpha  Delta  Phi,  and  Delta  Kappa  Epsilon — ^Yale  is 
connected  with  the  regular  fraternity  system  of  the 
country.  Owing  to  the  fact  that  the  Yale  societies  are 
for  the  junior  year  only,  the  tie  between  their  members 
is  looser  than  in  other  colleges.  The  Yale  chapters  are 
also  less  careful  in  preserving  the  secrets  of  the  orders. 
The  literary  exercises  of  the  junior  society  are  more 
varied  than  those  of  previous  years,  and  combine  fea- 
tures from  each  of  them.     The  regular  programme  is 


SOCIETIES  DURING   TRANSITION   PERIOD.      175 

less  formal  than  that  of  the  freshman  society,  and  there 
is  less  prominence  to  the  social  features  than  in  the 
sophomore  societies.  There  are  music  and  dancing  as 
well  as  singing,  and  of  course  smoking  and  card-play- 
ing and  occasional  suppers.  Much  care  was  given  to 
the  composition  of  society  songs,  which  were  frequently 
sung  in  public.  The  senior  societies  were  closely  con- 
nected with  college  politics,  most  of  the  important  hon- 
our positions  being  filled  in  the  junior  year.  These  or- 
ganizations inspire  more  affection  in  their  members  than 
the  clubs  of  the  two  previous  years;  their  members  fre- 
quently give  large  sums  of  money  for  the  erection  of 
costly  halls.  This  feeling  extends  still  more  strongly 
to  the  graduates. 

The  senior  societies  of  Yale — the  Skull  and  Bones, 
and  Scroll  and  Keys — were  perhaps  the  most  unique  stu- 
dent institutions  in  the  country.  They  were  absolutely 
secret,  their  members  never  mentioning  the  society 
names  in  the  presence  of  outsiders,  nor  do  they  in  any 
way  refer  to  rival  societies.  Pledges  and  electioneering 
are  avoided.  In  theory  the  membership  is  made  up  of 
the  best  men  of  the  year,  fifteen  in  each  society,  who 
must  be  noted  either  for  scholarship,  literary  ability, 
athletic  prowess,  good  fellowship,  or  great  wealth.  The 
mystic  symbols,  badges,  and  numbers  are  particularly 
prominent,  and  are  carried  into  the  most  ordinary  de- 
tails of  society  life.  For  instance,  the  official  notes  of 
the  Skull  and  Bones  are  written  to  old  members  upon 
"  black-bordered  paper  of  the  catalogue  size,  with  or 
without  the  society  head  at  the  top.  Society  communi- 
cations sent  through  the  mails  are  often  inclosed  in 
black-edged  envelopes,  bearing  at  the  end  a  printed  re- 
quest to  the  postmaster  to  return  them  to  the  society 
post-office  box  if  not  delivered  within  a  certain  time. 
They  are  sealed  with  a  skull  and  bones,  and  the  letters  S. 
C.  B.  impressed  upon  black  wax." 


176  STUDENT  LIFE  AND  CUSTOMS. 

Each  senior  society  possesses  a  hall  of  peculiar 
structure.  The  Skull  and  Bones  Chapter  House  has 
been  described  as  a  "  grim-looking,  windowless,  tomb- 
like structure  of  brown  sandstone,  rectangular  in  shape, 
showing  a  front  of  about  thirty-five  and  a  length  of 
forty-four  feet,  and  it  is  at  a  guess  thirty-five  feet  high. 
The  entrance  in  front  is  guarded  by  a  pair  of  massive 
iron  doors  a  dozen  feet  high,  finished  oft'  in  panels  and 
of  a  dark-green  colour,  while  heavy  clasps  of  brass  close 
over  the  keyholes  and  are  secured  by  padlocks,  beneath 
one  of  which  a  bell  pull  is  concealed.  The  roof  is 
nearly  flat  and  is  covered  with  half -inch  plates  of  iron, 
which  in  1867  took  the  place  of  the  tin  before  employed. 
There  is  a  skylight  similarly  protected,  and  the  chim- 
neys and  ventilators  are  arranged  along  the  edges  of  the 
roof.  Behind  are  a  pair  of  small  windows  barred  with 
iron,  and  close  to  the  ground  are  two  or  three  scuttle 
holes  communicating  with  the  cellar."  This  building 
is  valued  at  thirty  thousand  dollars;  the  new  and  more 
elaborate  structure  of  the  Scroll  and  Keys  is  worth  fifty 
thousand. 

"  The  attempt  to  make  an  outsider  realize  the  over- 
whelming fascination  which  a  senior  society  exerts  upon 
the  mind  of  the  average  Yale  undergraduate  would  be 
probably  useless.  An  election  thereto  is  valued  more 
highly  than  any  other  college  prize  or  honour,  and  in 
fact  these  honours  derive  a  good  part  of  their  attractive- 
ness from  their  supposed  efficacy  in  helping  to  pro- 
cure the  coveted  election.  There  is  nothing  in  the 
wide  world  which  seems  half  so  desirable."  Member- 
ship in  Bones  or  Keys  is  really  valuable  because  it  in- 
troduces a  man  to  the  best  graduates  of  Yale  wherever 
he  may  be,  and  secures  him  entertainment  by  the  ablest 
undergraduates  when  he  visits  New  Haven.  Both  the 
societies  have  developed  in  their  men  great  pride  and 
generosity  which  is  expressed  in  a  somewhat  different 


SOCIETIES  DURING   TRANSITION   PERIOD.      177 

way  by  the  two  organizations.  The  members  of  Skull 
and  Bones  avoided  displays  of  their  feelings,  while 
Keys  men  rather  ostentatiously  exhibited  the  same. 
This  attitude  toward  the  public  is  typical  of  the  two 
societies,  Bones  gathering  in  the  real  ability,  leaving 
Keys  the  men  of  brilliant  social  qualities.  Bones,  being 
the  older,  has  always  stood  highest  in  the  opinion  of  the 
Yale  world.  ■ 

The  attitude  of  the  neutrals  or  the  non-society  men 
toward  these  two  organizations  was  that  of  bitter  hos- 
tility. The  neutrals  form  a  rabble  on  the  night  of  elec- 
tion, which  ranges  about  the  college  yard,  barring  up 
entry  doors,  raising  false  alarms,  and  otherwise  dis- 
porting itself.  A  bogus  society,  called,  in  mockery  of 
the  Bones,  the  Bowl  and  Stones,  amused  itself  ridiculing 
the  usages  and  symbols  of  the  senior  societies  by  sing- 
ing comic  songs,  printing  and  posting  derisive  hand- 
bills, and  offering  bogus  elections  to  simple-minded 
classmatps.  At  one  time  the  neutrals  went  so  far  as 
to  smash  bottles  of  ink  upon  the  front  of  Bones  Hall, 
and  tore  the  chains  from  their  staples.  They  fre- 
quently steal  the  ice  cream  prepared  for  inaugural  ban- 
quets. 

Efforts  have  been  made  in  other  institutions,  nota- 
bly Columbia  (Axe  and  Coffin),  Michigan  (Owl  and 
Padlock),  and  Wesleyan  (Skull  and  Serpent,  and  Owl 
and  Wand),  to  imitate  the  senior  society  system  of  Yale. 
Xone  of  these  imitations  has  been  of  any  particular  im- 
portance, for  while  the  copying  of  the  outer  signs  and 
names  of  the  Yale  system  is  eas}^,  to  gain  their  peculiar 
position  and  prestige  is  quite  another  matter.  At  Yale 
the  existence  of  the  lower-class  societies  facilitates  the 
sifting  of  men  so  that  the  ablest  students  are  well- 
marked  characters  by  the  end  of  the  junior  year.  Har- 
vard is  the  only  other  institution  in  the  country  where 
such  societies  would  have  been  possible,  and  Harvard, 
12 


178  STUDENT   LIFE  AND   CUSTOMS. 

as  we  have  seen^  developed  social  clubs  on  the  basis  of 
congeniality  rather  than  any  society  system  properly 
so  called. 

No  discussion  of  the  fraternity  system  would  be 
complete  which  failed  to  take  account  of  the  violent 
controversy  which  the  introduction  of  this  form  of  stu- 
dent organization  has  produced  in  American  colleges. 
Students  and  professors  have  both  been  divided  in  their 
attitude  upon  the  issue  involved.  Men  of  equally  high 
standing  and  large  experience  are  found  who  take  a 
pronounced  position  on  each  side  of  the  controversy; 
while  the  conflict  of  opinion  is  not  now  as  sharp 
and  bitter  as  in  the  formative  period,  yet  the  antag- 
onism persists  in  perhaps  three  fourths  of  the  Ameri- 
can colleges.  In  a  number  of  the  smaller  denomi- 
national institutions  the  fraternity  is  still  excluded 
by  a  faculty  enactment,  while  in  others  lodges  are 
tolerated  because  it  is  believed  that  their  exclusion  is 
impossible.  In  the  larger  universities,  particularly 
the  State  universities  of  the  West,  the  fraternities 
and  neutrals  struggle  for  the  supremacy  in  college 
politics. 

The  writer  has  known  two  men  of  the  same  ante- 
cedents and  intelligence,  graduates  of  the  same  college, 
at  practically  the  same  period,  whose  ideas  on  the  fra- 
ternity question  were  as  wide  apart  as  the  poles.  One, 
after  carefully  reviewing  his  college  career,  gave  it  as 
his^deliberate^pinion  thgt^his  fraternity  experience  was 
the  most  valuable.4iQ3::^ion  of  his  college  trainingjji^ 
considered  the  system  almost  vvilliMt  defects!  ToThe 
other,  the  fraternity  system  was  the  chief  cause  of  dis- 
sipation, rowdyism,  and  neglect  of  studies.  A  feeling 
of  partisanship  almost  as  deep  as  this  pervades  the  liter- 
ature of  the  subject;  most  of  the  articles  in  books  are 
either  attacks  or  vindications,  eulogies,  or  disparage- 
ments.   In  the  present  section  we  shall  merely  aim  to 


SOCIETIES  DURING  TRANSITION   PERIOD.      179 

present  the  question  historically,  reviewing  the  chief 
items  in  the  controversy. 

As  we  have  seen  in  the  section  relating  to  the 
debating  societies,  the  introduction  of  fraternities 
tended  to  dissolve  the  old  associations.  The  more  con- 
servative college  men  attached  to  the  debating  society 
found  themselves  at  a  disadvantage  in  college  politics 
and  so  proceeded  to  organize  open  societies  of  their  own, 
which  professed  to  be  the  legitimate  successors  of  the 
debating  clubs.  The  struggle  between  the  secret  and 
anti-secret  societies  for  the  possession  of  promising 
men  waxed  fierce  during  the  forties  and  fifties.  At 
times  this  conflict  seemed  to  overshadow  all  other  stu- 
dent interests.*  The  same  disadvantage  which  forced 
the  open  society  men  to  combine  in  each  college  made 
co-operation  between  this  element  in  the  different  col- 
leges advisable.  In  1847  the  social  fraternity  of  Wil- 
liams united  with  the  equitable  fraternities  of  Union, 
Amherst,  and  Hamilton  to  form  the  Anti-Secret  Con- 
federation. Eleven  years  later  the  name  was  altered  to 
that  of  Delta  Upsilon,  which  has  since  been  retained. 
Since  1860  the  anti-fraternity  feature  of  the  Delta  Up- 
silon has  for  all  practical  purposes  disappeared  and  its 
methods  and  practices  are  identical  with  those  of  the 
other  fraternity,  except  for  the  fact  that  its  constitu- 
tion is  open  to  the  public.  For  many  years  it  was  re- 
garded with  contempt  by  the  secret  fraternities,  but  of 
late  this  feeling  has  largely  disappeared,  f 

The  general  attitude  of  the  college  authorities  of 
the  period  may  be  followed  from  a  number  of  letters  by 
American  college  presidents,  which  Edward  Hitchcock 

*  Hitchcock,  Edward.  Reminiscences  of  Amherst  College, 
p.  321. 

f  Baird,  W.  R.  American  College  Fraternities,  first  edition, 
pp.  67,  68. 


180  STUDENT  LIFE  AND   CUSTOMS. 

prints  in  his  Reminiscences  of  Amherst  College.*  Ob- 
serving that  a  fraternity  man  expelled  from  one  college 
found  a  ready  welcome  among  his  brethren  in  an- 
other, Hitchcock  issued  a  circular  letter  to  Northern 
college  presidents,  asking  opinions  as  to  the  advisability 
of  joint  action  in  an  effort  to  crush  the  entire  fraternity 
system.  Nine  replies  are  printed,  without  giving  the 
names.  No  president  says  a  good  word  for  the  fra- 
ternity, although  one  correspondent  apologetically  re- 
marks that  the  society  which  exists  in  his  college  is  sup- 
posed to  be  harmless.  While  they  all  agree  as  to  the 
danger,  the  majority  doubt  the  expediency  of  compul- 
sory measures,  testifying  from  experience  that  such  ac- 
tion would  probably  intensify  the  evil.  Some  of  the 
chiel^  objections  urgerlaf^ninst  thft  frntprnitv  were,,£Sat 
it  ijiyidecl  the  college  mto  factions,  thereby  promoting 
env¥_^(l  ;|ealousy,  and  tnai  tney  were  unfavourable 
tcL.-religiom  'i'lie  unfortllhate  eriieci  of  the  dissen- 
sions  provoked  by  the  fraternity  on  the  old  literary 
societies  was  mentioned  by  some  of  the  writers.  This 
discussion  led  to  no  action,  and  is  valuable  chiefly 
as  showing  the  general  attitude  of  college  administra- 
tors. 

However,  many  of  the  colleges  attempted  to  uproot 
the  fraternity  system.  In  1851  the  faculty  of  the  Uni- 
versity of  Michigan  made  the  effort  to  crush  all  student 
secret  societies,  expelling  the  fraternity  members  from 
college,  f  This  action  aroused  the  Masonic  order  and 
other  secret  societies  throughout  the  State  and  led  to  the 
downfall  of  the  anti-fraternity  administration.  Prince- 
ton abolished  fraternities  in  1855,  and  remains  the  only 

*  Hitchcock,  Edward.  Reminiscences  of  Amherst  College,  pp. 
321-325. 

f  McLaughhn,  Andrew  C.  History  of  Higher  Education  i^ 
Michigan,  p.  44. 


^OUiETIES  DURING  TRANSITION  PERIOD.      181 

institution  of  the  first  rank  to  persist  in  this  policy. 
By  the  early  seventies  the  fraternities  which  had  been 
surreptitiously  organized  attempted  to  gain  control  of 
the  Princeton  halls,  and  it  was  only  the  strong  influence 
of  President  McCosh  which  finally  destroyed  them. 
Princeton  men  have  claimed  an  immunity  from  factions 
and  petty  jealousies  because  of  this  action.*  It  is  said, 
however,  that  secret  fraternity  chapters  have  existed  at 
Princeton  during  man}^  periods  of  its  recent  history. 
In  the  late  fifties  Harvard  also  declared  against  frater- 
nities. Many  small  colleges  and  State  fraternities  in 
the  South  and  West  followed  the  lead  of  Harvard  and 
Princeton,  and  it  was  not  until  the  late  seventies  that 
the  opposition  was  relaxed.  On  the  other  hand,  Penn- 
sylvania, Columbia,  Cornell,  and  to  a  certain  extent 
Yale,  have  uniformly  regarded  the  fraternities  with 
favour,  f  The  majority  of  small  colleges  in  the  East 
have  taken  the  same  attitude. 

While  chronologically  the  further  discussion  of  this 
problem  belongs  to  the  next  period,  the  fierce  decade  of 
controversy  from  1870  to  1880  is  so  intimately  con- 
nected with  the  storm  and  stress  period  that  it  may  be 
considered  in  this  connection.  A  digest  of  the  chief 
controversial  articles  of  importance  will  be  followed  by 
an  account  of  the  struggle  between  the  opposing  forces 
in  two  or  three  typical  institutions  of  importance.  In 
the  conflict  the  fraternities  have  generally  stood  on  the 
defensive. 

The  most  comprehensive  attack  on  the  fraternity 
system  ever  made  was  published  in  1874  with  the  title 
College  Secret  Societies;  their  Customs,  Character,  and 

*  Wallace.  G.  R.     Princeton  Sketches,  p.  195. 

f  Schelling,  Felix  E.  Organizations  within  the  Universitv.  in 
'\  N.  Thorpe's  Benjamin  Franklin  and  the  University  of  Penn- 
-ylvania,  p.  418. 


182  STUDENT  LIFE  AND  CUSTOMS. 

Efforts  for  their  Suppression.  This  work,  of  which 
H.  L.  Kellogg  was  editor,  emanated  from  a  commit- 
tee appointed  by  the  National  Christian  Association 
in  1873.  The  committee  issued  two  questionnaires  to 
the  colleges  of  the  country;  the  first  solicited  their 
opinion  concerning  the  relation  which  "  Freemasonary 
and  kindred  orders  sustained  to  the  moral  and  political 
welfare  of  our  country."  The  colleges  replied  that  such 
orders  were  enemies  to  political  purity  and  social  moral- 
ity. A  second  circular,  with  which  we  are  more  im- 
mediately concerned,  related  to  secret  societies  in 
colleges.  Forty-eight  institutions  situated  in  twenty 
States  replied.  Three  of  these  favoured  fraternities; 
the  remainder  show  a  "general  and  deep-seated  convic- 
tion that  their  nature  and  tendency  are  wholly  evil." 
The  editor,  therefore,  states  in  his  preface  that  the 
book  is  designed  to  lead  parents  and  guardians  to  a 
hearty  co-operation  with  college  boards  for  the  extinc- 
tion of  fraternities. 

The  first  chapter  of  the  book  treats  of  the  origin  and 
history  of  the  fraternity  system,  and  is  both  unsatisfac- 
tory and  unreliable.  In  the  second  chapter  the  frater- 
nity system  is  described,  accounts  of  initiation  and 
copies  of  by-laws  previously  printed  in  the  newspapers 
are  inserted,  together  with  a  stinging  arraignment  of 
secret  societies.  The  author,  Mr.  Kellogg,  describes  an 
attempt  on  the  part  of  the  Greek-letter  champions  to 
break  up  an  anti-fraternity  meeting.  He  next  outlines 
the  attempts  to  check  and  destroy  the  fraternities  previ- 
ous to  the  Cornell  tragedy  of  1873,  which  episode  fills 
the  entire  fourth  chapter.  The  story  of  this  affair  is  soon 
told.  A  young  man  of  good  family  while  waiting  blind- 
folded for  an  opportunity  to  be  initiated  into  the  Kappa 
Alpha  fraternity,  accidentally  walked  off  the  edge  of  a 
cliff  and  was  killed.  The  fraternity  unwisely  endeav- 
oured to  suppress  all  accounts  of  the  affair,  with  the 


44h 


SOCIETIES  DURING   TRANSITION   PERIOD.      183 

natural  result  of  arousing  the  suspicions  of  the  public* 
It  led  to  a  bitter  attack  on  the  fraternities.  Chapter  V 
is  the  most  valuable  part  of  the  book,  as  it  contains 
testimony  from  professors  and  students  in  regard  to 
fraternal  secrecy.  The  answers  strike  an  impartial 
reader  as  unrepresentative  and  prejudiced,  as  may  be 
supposed  from  the  parties  and  the  character  of  the  work; 
the  conclusions  in  the  last  chapter  are  worthless. 

The  work  contains  considerable  valuable  testimony 
however,  and  gives  an  insight  into  the  reasons  for 
opposition  to  the  fraternity.  ^^The  two  elements  of  an- 
tagonism which  seem  to  have  predominated  were  the  re- 
ligious distrust  of  the  supposed  immoralities  and  waste 
of  time  consequent  upon  fraternity  life,  and  democratic 
hatred  of  anything  with  pretensions  to  aristocracy  or 
selectness.  /Two  papers  of  value  previously  published, 
one  by  Dr.  Howard  Crosby,  in  The  Congregationalist  for 
1869," and  the  other  by  Prof.  J.  R.  Jacques,  of  the  Illi- 
nois Wesleyan  University,  read  before  the  Central  Col- 
lege Association  in  1868,  were  reprinted  in  this  pub- 
lication. 

Dr.  Crosby  wrote  from  a  student  connection  with 
the  Delta  Phi  fraternity.  From  personal  experience, 
"^  objects  to  college  secret  societies  because  they  en- 
c  irage  immorality  and  destroy  confidence  between 
parent  and  child.  "  They  are  a  pretence,  and  thus  at 
war  with  true  candour  and  manliness.  However  harm- 
less in  their  active  operations  or  undertakings,  however 
well  composed  in  membership,  the  habit  of  secrecy  is  in- 
sidiously weakening  to  the  foundations  of  frank  truth- 
fulness in  the  youthful  mind.  Sham  is  not  only  a  mean 
thing,  but  it  blocks  the  way  to  truth.  A  lazy  soul  finds 
a  quasi  success  in  sham  and  gives  up  the  pursuit  of  the 
true.     A  lad  who  receives  honour  among  his  comrades 

*  Kellogg,  n.  L.     The  Secret  Society  System,  pp.  51,  52. 


184  STUDENT  LIFE  AND  CUSTOMS. 

because  he  wears  a  mystic  skull  and  bones  upon  his 
breast  will  proportionately  lose  so  much  of  his  zeal  for 
scholarship  or  all  else  that  constitutes  true  worth.'^  * 
He  also  urges  against  the  fraternities  that  they  exalt 
/fj  the  social  above  the  intellectual,  tend  to^tkuse  insur- 
rections against  college  authoritie^  ^ftestroy  the  regular 
literary  societieeX/'and  increase  the  expense  of  college 
education.  ^ 

Professor  Jacques  makes  nearly  the  same  charges 
against  the  system,  emphasizing  the  difficulties  in 
college  government  created  by  the  presence  of  the  fra- 
ternities. In  his  experience  they  embolden  students 
against  the  faculty  and  tend  to  a  laxer  standard,  warp- 
ing and  blindly  influencing  the  president  and  profess- 
ors with  a  vague  fear  of  rebellion  against  wholesome 
discipline.  With  the  other  anti-fraternity  writers  of 
this  period  he  makes  the  moral  objection  paramount. 
"  They  tend  to  breed  that  secretive  disposition  which 
v^  is  the  very  opposite  of  truly  candid,  generous,  magnani- 
'  Y^ous  character,  besides  affording  opportunities  for 
\  stealthy  planning  and  plotting  to  accomplish  the  pro- 
posed ends;  they  divert  attention  and  confidence  from 
honest  work,  manly  measures,  eternal  right,  trium- 
phant truth,  to  the  tricks  of  a  temporizing  and  com- 
promising policy  which  need  the  secret  conclave  and 
sleepless  cunning."  f 

Much  of  this  criticism  is  of  a  condition  of  affairs 
which  has  long  since  passed  away  except  in  a  few 
.  frontier  colleges.  The  fraternities  were  in  most,  cases 
newly  established,  with  no  reputation  to  lose.  Each 
chapter  was  virtually  independent,  a  condition  favour- 
able to  recklessness.  Many  of  the  colleges  were  small 
and  weak,  pervaded  with  an  intense  evangelical  fervour, 

*  Quoted  by  H.  L.  Kellogg.     College  Secret  Societies,  p.  32. 
f  Ibid.,  p.  36. 


SOCIETIES  DUE 

and  maintaining  an  a] 
antagonism  in  which 
appeared  to  advantag 
E.  E.  Aiken's  Se 
more  mature  standpo. 
tions  are  relegated  to 
makes   his   case   rest 
fraternity  life  npon  f 
clusiveness  and  \vh 
the  fraternity,  ar 
nity  men.     To 
thing  terrible 
as  death  and 
are  left  out 
powers  of  ' 
serves  th*" 
state  of 
large  r 
culi"- 
of  1 
of 
ve 
Vhe) 
evei 

socia 
Portei 
made  > 
quoted 
son:  "I. 


*  E.  B.  A 

The  book  is  m 
at  Yale,  althouj. 
his  Alma  Mater, 
apply  to  fraternit 
t  Ibid.,  p.  64. 


CUSTOMS. 

',  practice  of  the  low 

ms  and  bargains  are 

'  defeat  of  candidates 

tt  the  end  of  the  col- 

-  with  the  disingenu- 

The  fact  that  mem- 

to  fraternities  excites 

">ften  regard  them  as 

Tanization. 

'^en,  "  is  not  the 

s;  the  spiritual 

dship  are  nn- 

'  ends.     In  a 

ee/to  make 

a  difficulty 

by  them 

an  ele- 

moral- 

"  the 

Ili- 

ire 

ke 

jwh 

Lto 

nse- 

as  of 

I  up  in 

,  which 

th  when 

ction  and 

.rough  life. 

i  and  manly 

.n  these  secret 

lanagement,  to 

)rities,  and  in- 


SOCIETIES  DURIXG  TRANSITION  PERIOD.      187 

fluence  ejections  to  college  honours.  The}^  often  tempt 
young  men  to  drink  and  dissipation.  Xearly  every  pro- 
lessor  acknowledges  them  to  be  an  evil,  but  is  afraid 
of  them.''  * 

The  two  ablest  justifications  of  the  fraternity  have 
been  written  by  Mr.  W.  E.  Baird,  in  his  American  Col- 
lege Fraternities,  and  by  ex-President  Andrew  D. 
White  of  Cornell.  Of  the  two,  Baird  represents  the 
polemic  attitude,  as  he  answers  point  for  point  the 
arguments  advanced  by  the  opponents  of  the  system; 
President  "White  the  affirmative  side,  stating  the  benefits 
to  be  derived  from  fraternity  life. 

Baird  begins  his  chapter  on  College  Fraternities — 
Have  they  a  Eight  to  live? — by  a  review  of  some  of 
the  anti-fraternity  literature,  including  the  books  of 
Kellogg  and  Aiken.  His  representation  of  these  works, 
while  not  incorrect,  is  misleading,  because  he  empha- 
sizes certain  details  in  his  opponents'  arguments  to  the 
exclusion  of  more  important  issues.  While  more  skil- 
ful than  his  opponents,  B.ai^d  is  equally  lacking  in  can- 
(ibur,  and  betrays  an  ignorance  of  other  student  organi- 
zations, particularly  of  the  debating  society.  His  chap- 
ter is  in  truth  a  special  plea  for  the  fraternity.  He  de- 
fends fraternities  under  the  following  heads:  secrecy, 
poMii^aL relations,  moral  rp1?i t ion }^,  fj'^-f-p-r-nifipg"'m-|r[^ti-i>- 
nH-jpa,  a Tlti -fraternity  Inws,  nnd  PYpp-nsivpupss. 

In  discussing  secrecy,  Baird  declares  that  it  is  a 
^vTfiinor  factor  in  fraternity  life;  that  in  most  respects 
the  fraternity,  instead  of  being  a  secret,  is  in  many  re- 
spects a  distinctively  public  organization  because  of  the 
display  of  badges  and  the  publicity  of  their  banquets 
and  conventions.  Their  secrecy  consists  of  but  two 
elements:    the    members    hold    meetings    with    closed 

*  McCosh,  James.     Discipline  in  American   Colleges,  North 
American  Review,  v  )1.  cxxvi,  p.  440. 


188  STUDENT  LIFE  AND  CUSTOMS. 

doors,  and  do  not  tell  the  meaning  of  the  Greek  letters 
by  which  they  are  known.  The.  fraternities  are  merely 
called  secret,  and  differ  fundamentally  from  other  secret 
organizations. 

As  to  the  relations  of  the  fraternities  with  the  col- 

\lege  faculties,  Baird  claims  that  where  opposition  ex- 
ists it  is  due  wholly  to  the  fact  that  the  faculty  refuses 
to  recognise  the  fraternity  as  a  useful  social  party  exist- 
ing within  the  college.  When  the  authorities  conclude 
to  recognise  the  fraternities,  they  find  the  chapters 
only  too  glad  to  -assist  in  maintaining  order.  The 
fraternities  tend  to  mitigate  class  hostility  and  to  ban- 
ish hazing,  and  in  numerous  other  ways  to  benefit  the 
college.  If,  however,  the  faculty  passes  anti-fraternity 
legislation,  they  create  the  very  evil  they  seek  to  coun- 
teract by  driving  the  students  to  form  secret  lodges 
which  have  no  reputation  to  lose  and  do  much  damage. 
The  only  charge  against  the  fraternities  which  has 
/  the  slightest  foundation  in  fact  is  that  of  expensive- 
^'•.  ness.  Most  of  the  money,  however,  is  spent  by  a  class  of 
students  who  would  get  rid  of  it  in  any  event,  perhaps 
in  some  less  legitimate  way.  ^'^  We  can  say  from  per- 
sonal  rTpp-nrnro,  nnrl  nftor  rnrpfiiTinquiry  that  the  tfa- 
terhity  expenses  in  anv_  one  chapter  rarely  exceed 
twenty  dollars  per  annum  in  a  city  college  with  a  com- 
parati?g^  small  oocictyrw^^^tj  any  increase  m  the  size  of 
the  chapter  reduces  the  expense  proportionately.     In^ 

nonntry  no]1po;pp,    irhf^r^^  liTnnrn  in   ntioapp-r    tlie__totaTjx^ 

poTisps  wi11  rnrely  nm^nnt  t^  m^r^  tbnn  hn1f  fhnt  sum. 
y  In  return  for  this  outlay  the  mpjuhers  repeive  Iflsfinrr.. 
benefitsjntlie  way  of  businessj^nd  social  training.  JThev^^ 
have  the  help  of  the  up^ex.  r.las«m'm  and  the  use  of  a^ 
co"sfIy  library,  perhapsTand  usually  the  privileges  of  a 
ehapter^house.*  "  " 


*  Baird,  W.  R.    American  College  Fra-ernities,  p.  349. 


V    th 


Vr, 


SOCIETIES  DURI^JG  TRANSITION  PERIOD.      189 

In  college  politics  the  fraternities  have  not  caused  ^^ 
the  formation  of  cliques  as  such,  for  they  existed  years  ,     i 
before  the  system  was  developed,  and  depend  for  their 
formation  upon  the  inherent  conditions  of  human  na- 
ture.    The  single  fraternity  is  too  small  to  act  as  a 
clique,  and  the  only  method  of  procedure^ would   be 
to  form  combinations.    Tiie  societies  themselves  strong- 
Iv  disapprove  of  suclicombinatio^7~dnd  niauv  tif  LhtTrn 
have  Ipgislfltpfl  flgnrnsFthe  practice;  the  general  senti-vjt, 
ment  prevailing  among  fraternity  men  is  that  inter-  ■** 
ference  in  politics  is  a  mistake.    fThe^  f raternitie^i ave 
introduced  neither  cliques  nor  politics  into  college  life: 
the^^-JQund  them  there  and  have  left  them.'ji  JjLlt^ater- 
jA\fj  r>TPTi  arft  pjpptpd  to  offices  it  is  because  thev  gener- 
allj_j£QiQprise  the  most  prominent  and  deserving  stu- 
deiits^___JThe  author,  however,  weakens  the  force  of  his 
vindication  by  remarking,  further  on :  *^  The  esprit  de 
corps  engendered  by  membership  in  the  fraternities,  and  1' 
which  we  deem  a  most  valuable  feature  in  their  organi-  / 
zation,  may  at  times  degenerate  into  political  allegi-/ 
ance,  but  it  is  not  the  first  or  only  time  that  a  go^\ 
thing  has  been  put  to  a  bad  purpose."  .  ^'^^j^i^'^^^ 

To  the  charges  of  immorality  sometimes  levelleo^ 
against  the  fraternity,  Baird  replies  that  fifteen  per 
cent  of  the  membership  of  the  fraternity  is  composed  of 
clergymen,  including  bishops  of  the  Methodist  and  Epis- 
copal churches,  and  more  prominent  divines  in  other  de- 
nominations. These  men  are  identified  wi|b  thA-«<^f^- 
tiesvafl^r^^raduation  and  advisetheir  sons  to  -join  them^ 
whreh-^yojoE  be  linrHiy  r.hp  pngpvLiJ»^>-TliiiplMi's!  wai:^  fhe 
fieatsof  dissipation. 

■^  To  ex-i^resideni  White  there  are  great  advantages 
in  the  permanency  and  public  character  of  the  frater- 
nity. Unlike  a  merely  temporarv  club,  it  has  a  reputa- 
tion to  make  and  maintain.  The  badge  which  each 
member  wears  fixes  his  responsibility;  if  he  is  less  than 


190  STUDENT  LIFE  AND  CUSTOMS. 

a  gentleman  he  disgraces  his  fraternity.  In  time  each 
chapter  com^g-^hrhave  a  bodr-o^-snadnates  who  naturatty 
fipan  plpffpljr  fliPir  hTftthrpTT^n  collcge,  and  are  the  first  to 

pnnrlpmrt    ^j]y  nnnrlnpf   wlri(^  WOUld    be   ili^eiV   tO   injUTC 

the  fraternity.  No  chapter  can  afford  th^  approval  of 
its  graduates  because  of  its  dependence  on  them  for 
incoming  members  and  financial  support.  The  frater- 
nity pride  can  be  appealed  to  in  case  of  discipline. 
When  a  man  is  failing  and  in  danger  of  suspension  the 
university  authorifies  can  call  m  the  senior  memberSTTf 
lh£T^(^vTi\iJ^^wP^^J^T\  tjip  injvrry  that  the  man  is  cToiHg- 
the-^der,  and  insist  that  they  either  reform  him  or 
remove  him.  Thjn  riurro^rln  vidif^n  n11  "otli^LJII^^^^]]^''^^ 
haSHaHSL  Fraternity  pride  also  prevents  socIaT^c- 
\  casions  from  degeneratmg  into  carousals.  The-frater- 
jiities  throw  healthtui  restraints  around  their  members 
ifch  prevent  degeneration.  '      ' 

CThe  chapter;  h mi sp  ih  an  exnellent  substitute  for  the 
)me^  Its  possession  brings  to  the  undergraduate  a 
healthy  sense  of  responsibility.  lie  no  longer  indulges 
in  car£l£ssnogg,  uyiuai,  and  de»teiatijQ:Q^ which  character- 
ize dormitory  life.  All  properly  constituted  chapters 
no-ntflrn^stearly  parnnnt  mnn  \d-io  exercise  a  th oiigjitf ul 
care  over  the  y^n-ngop  ri1^mbp.r°  SocxLally  tho  fraternity 
is  likewise  advantageous  to  its  members.  "  Simple  re- 
ceptions and  entertainments  show  a  growing  away  from 
one  of  the  main  objections  to  the  association,  the 
growth  of  a  petty,  narrow,  contemptible  clique  spirit."  * 
While  the  fraternities  take  part  in  rc>]]nfr(^  poti-%»cs 
and  bear  the  same  relation  to  student  life  which  the 
guilds  held  in  the  mediaeval  municipality,  such  a  con- 
dition of  affairs  is  inevitable  in  the  prpspnt  aa5a^^5»na 
of  ^^Sierican  lifefVhere  a  dozen  students_r^ri  n^t  be  . 

*  White,  Andrew  D.    College  Fraternities,  The  Forum,  vol.  ill, 
p.  247. 


^. 


SOCIE-^IES   DURING   TRANSITION  PERIOD.      191 

broiight  togetlier  without  developing  party  politics. 
The  real  dangers  from  which  the  fraternities  should" 
guard  themselves  are  the  growth  of  a  narrow  clique 
spirit  and  extravagance.  These  should  be  fought 
against  at  every  step,  although  so  far  as  they  exist  with- 
in the  fraternity  they  are  simply  bubbles  on  the  great 
stream  of  American  life. 

Dr.  White  saves  his  strongest  language  for  colleges 
which  endeavour  to  suppress  the  fraternity.  Such 
efforts  he  says  must  always  be  futile.  When  it  has  been 
attempted,  badges  were  worn  for  years  beneath  the  stu- 
dents' coats,  meetings  were  held  by  stealth,  and  a  sys- 
tem of  casuistry  adopted  by  the  members  when  ques- 
tioned, which  was  injurious  to  the  students  from  a 
moral  point  of  view.  Such  secret  chapters  are  cut  off 
from  all  connection  with  their  graduate  members  and 
gradually  degenerate.  Moreover,  a  general  repressive 
policy  defeats  its  own  purposes  and  deprives  the  col- 
lege authorities  of  the  power  to  rid  themselves  of  any 
particular  fraternity  which  is  really  evil;  for  when  an 
attempt  is  made  to  drive  out  all  fraternities,  they  will 
stand  by  each  other  to  the  last.  "  They  will  simply 
conceal  their  badges  and  band  themselves  as  a  wretched, 
occult,  demoralizing  power.  On  the  other  hand,  if  each 
fraternity  is  allowed  to  exist  on  its  own  merits,  any  one 
thought  injurious  by  the  college  faculty  can  easily  be 
driven  out.  It  is  one  of  the  easiest  things  imaginable. 
I  myself  have  driven  out  an  old  and  widespread  frater- 
nity which  was  doing  evil  to  its  members,  by  a  simple 
public  statement  why  members  should  keep  out  of  it."  * 

Charles  Kendall  Adams,  likewise  President  of  Cor- 
nell, expresses  more  moderate  ideas.  He  sums  up  his 
experience  by  saying  that  good  societies  are  beneficial, 

*  White,  Andrew  D.  College  Fraternities,  The  Forum,  vol.  iii, 
p.  348. 


192  STUDENT  LIFE  AND  CUSTOMr.. 

bad  societies  injurious.  According  to  him,  three  or 
four  of  the  Cornell  chapters  have  a^eneficial  eifectj^n 
their  members;  two  or  three  others  are  at  least  doubtful 
In  their  IMuence.  The  fraternities  usually  keep  the 
black  sheep  among  their  own  members  from  excesses, 
but  not  always.  They  give  their  members  a  certain  pol- 
ish, but  on  the  other  hand  they  interfere  with  the  high- 
est scholarly  progress  of  the  very  best  fellows* 

The  second  characteristic  of  the  period  under  dis- 
cussion was  the  increasing  interest  taken  in  athletics. 
Not  only  were  athletic  games  more  frequent,  but  the 
interest  manifested  itself  in  the  creation  of  formal  ath- 
letic organizations  and  in  the  inauguration  of  intercol- 
legiate contests.  The  years  from  1840  to  1870  were 
the  formative  period  in  American  student  athletics. 

It  was  some  time  after  the  wave  of  athletic  interests 
struck  the  colleges  before  the  typical  athletic  sports — 
boating,  football,  baseball,  and  track  athletics — emerged 
from  a  number  of  competing  games.  At  Prince- 
ton, in  the  period  from  1840  to  1865,  handball  and 
cricket  were  in  vogue.  The  first  regular  athletic  organ- 
ization at  that  college  was  a  cricket  club,  formed  in 
1857.  By  1870  it  had  disappeared  from  the  field.  The 
first  regularly  organized  and  equipped  gymnasiums  at 
Yale,  Princeton,  and  Amherst  were  put  in  operation 
during  this  period. f 

Boating  was  the  first  organized  sport  to  gain  a  per- 
manent foothold.  As  early  as  1843  the  first  racing  boat 
was  purchased  by  a  Yale  undergraduate,  and  the  first 
club  formed.     From  that  time  on  there  has  never  been 

*  The  Academy,  Syracuse,  vol.  ii,  p.  373.  This  article  con- 
tains opinions  by  Presidents  McCosh,  of  Princeton ;  Seelye.  of 
Amherst ;  Adams,  of  Cornell ;  Prof.  T.  C.  Burgess,  of  the  State 
Normal  School,  Fredonia,  N.  Y. ;  and  Prof.  Oren  Root,  of  Ham- 
ilton. 

f  Princeton  Book,  p.  443. 


SOCIETIES  DURING  TRANSITION   PERIOD.      193 

less  than  three  student  boat  clubs  at  JSTew  Haven.  In 
1852  the  so-called  Yale  Navy  was  formed,  which  elected 
a  commodore  or  admiral  of  the  fleet,  who  had  charge 
of  all  boating  arrangements.  So  great  was  the  inter- 
est at  this  period  that  in  1859  the  entire  college  was 
divided  into  twelve  clubs  of  twenty  men  each.  This 
elaborate  organization,  which  was  taken  from  the  Eng- 
lish, proved  much  too  cumbersome;  class  crews  were 
found  to  be  greatly  superior  to  the  boat  clubs,  and  in 
1868  the  entire  scheme  was  dissolved.  The  Yale  Uni- 
versity Boat  Club  was  substituted.  The  boating  inter- 
est at  Harvard  came  later,  and  it  was  not  until  1852 
that  the  first  intercollegiate  boat  race  between  the  two 
colleges  took  place  on  Lake  Winnepesaukee.  Six  mis- 
cellaneous contests  on  three  different  courses  and  with 
varjdng  conditions  occurred  between  1852  and  1860. 
In  186-4  racing  under  standard  conditions  was  begun 
between  Harvard  and  Yale  on  Lake  Quinsigamond  near 
Worcester.  In  a  great  majority  of  the  earlier  races  vic- 
tory inclined  to  Harvard.  Elated  by  five  successive 
victories  over  Yale,  Harvard  in  1869  sent  a  crew  to 
England,  which  was  beaten  by  the  University  of  Oxford. 
The  conditions  w^ere  unfavourable  to  the  visiting  crew, 
as  the  race  was  rowed  over  a  difficult  course.* 

The  intense  spirit  of  athletic  rivalry  which  has 
played  such  an  important  part  in  developing  college 
sport  in  America  seems  to  have  been  in  evidence  for  the 
first  time  at  these  contests  on  Lake  Quinsigamond. 
Here  for  the  first  time  we  note  the  hard  training,  the 
great  popular  excitement,  the  special  trains,  the  cheers 
and  colours  of  contending  colleges,  the  recriminations 
and  charges  of  unfairness,  the  newspaper  sensational- 
ism, and  the  fierce  exultation  and  abandon  of  victory 
with  which  the  modern  student  is  so  familiar.     As  local 


*  See  Harvard  Book. 
13 


194:  STUDENT  LIFE  AND  CUSTOMS. 

opinion  favoured  Harvard,  Yale  objected  to  the  eontin- 
"uation  of  these  races,  which  led  to  the  inauguration  of 
the  Rowing  Association  of  American  Colleges,  which 
belongs  to  the  next  period.* 

The  formal  organization  of  baseball  came  a  decade 
later  than  boating.  The  first  regular  nine  was  formed 
at  Princeton  in  1858,  at  Amherst  in  1859,  and  at  Yale 
in  1865.  Princeton  was  the  first  college  to  advance  the 
new  sport  vigorously.  In  1862  the  Nassaus,  as  the 
Princeton  nine  was  called,  became  the  champions  of 
New  Jersey,  and  defeated  non-academic  athletic  clubs. 
Two  years  later  interclass  rivalry  in  baseball  was  insti- 
tuted at  the  same  institution,  and  from  there  made  its 
way  to  other  colleges.  The  first  of  the  regular  series 
of  the  Harvard- Yale  baseball  games  was  played  in 
1868.  The  primitive  conditions  of  the  game  may  be 
imagined  when  we  learn  that  Princeton  beat  Columbia 
by  a  score  of  fifty-nine  to  thirteen,  and  that  the  figures 
of  the  second  Harvard- Yale  game  were  forty-one  and 
twenty-four.  Instead  of  being  supported  by  a  general 
athletic  association,  the  baseball  players  constituted 
themselves  a  society,  with  the  regulation  president, 
vice-president,  secretary,  treasurer,  and  three  directors. 

A  rough  form  of  football  was  one  of  the  traditional 
amusements  of  college  men  as  far  back  as  pre-Revolu- 
tionary  times.  The  old  custom  of  a  freshman-sopho- 
more game  was  continued  at  Yale  until  1858,  when  it 
was  prohibited  by  a  municipal  ordinance  of  the  city  of 
New  Haven,  because  such  contests  invariably  took  place 
either  on  the  Common  or  in  the  streets  of  the  city.  A 
football  club  was  organized  at  Princeton  as  early  as 
1857,  but  soon  died.     In  186-4  the  sport  was  revived 

*  Good  descriptions  of  these  early  contests  are  found  in  G.  H. 
Tripp's  Student  Life  at  Harvard,  and  Hammersmith's  Harvard 
Days. 


SOCIETIES  DURING  TRAXSITIOX  PERIOD.      195 

and  was  said  to  be  the  most  popular  of  all  athletic 
games;  1868  saw  the  first  university  club,  which  was 
beaten  by  Rutgers  in  the  following  year.  It  was  not 
until  three  years  later  that  the  rules  of  the  game  were 
written  down,  oral  tradition  serving  until  this  time. 
The  early  Princeton  game  differed  in  many  points  from 
the  present  form  of  the  sport.  Football  was  revived  at 
Yale  in  1870,  by  D.  S.  Scharf,  an  old  Eugbyan,  and  in 
1872  a  football  association  was  formed.  During  this 
period  there  was  no  uniformity  in  the  game,  each  sec- 
tion in  the  country  having  its  own  rules.  Harmony 
was  not  secured  until  1876,  when  the  Eugby  rules  Avere 
formally  adopted  by  a  convention  of  American  colleges 
which  met  in  New  York. 

By  the  end  of  the  period,  in  1870,  athletics  had  won 
a  recognised  place  in  college  life.  Boating  was  effi- 
ciently organized  in  the  two  chief  Xew  England  colleges 
and  sporadically  cultivated  elsewhere;  baseball  was 
found  in  all  the  colleges  of  first  rank  in  the  East;  foot- 
ball was  exciting  considerable  local  student  interest,  but 
was  in  a  more  backward  state  of  development;  track 
and  field  sports  received  little  recognition.  In  boating, 
competition  was  fierce,  and  discussion  of  the  advisability 
of  mitigating  some  of  the  severity  of  the  contest  ap- 
peared in  the  newspapers  and  elsewhere.  The  other 
sports  were  too  new  and  undeveloped  to  have  given  rise 
to  serious  criticism. 


CHAPTER   V. 

STUDENT    SOCIETIES    IN    THE    MODERN    PERIOD, 
1870-1900. 

§  1.  Class  during  the  Modern  Period. 

Soon  after  1870  new  influences  began  to  be  felt 
in  the  superior  education  of  the  country.     Most  promi- 
nent among  these  forces  has- been  the  elective  system 
which  has  tended  to  destroy  that  community  of  interest 
upon  which  the  class  depended  for  its  vitality.  >/rhe 
rapid  increase  of  students  resulted  in  sinking  tile  indi- 
vidual in  the  mass  and  in  limiting  the  circle  of  collegiate 
acquaintance.  A  student  could  no  longer  take  a  personal 
interest  in  all  his  classmates,  for  they  were  so  numerous 
that  he  could  scarcely  know  them  all  by  sigh t/^  Then 
the  very  multiplicity  of  interests  and  organi-^tions  in 
many  modern  colleges  militates  against  that  closeness 
of  association  which  made  the  class  so  powerful.     These 
influences  have  been  strongest  in  the  larger  colleges  and 
universities,  particularly  those  situated  in  large  cities 
where  the  esprit  de  corps  has  always  been  weakest.    Be- 
cause of  its  size  and  the  free  extension  of  the  elective 
system,  Harvard  affords  an  excellent  opportunity  of  ob- 
serving the  result  of  these  new  tendencies.     By  1880 
the  Harvard  class  ceased  to  be  the  preponderating  social 
unit,  and  ten  years  later  it  was  said  that  even  for  ad- 
ministrative purposes  class  lines  were  tending  to  disap- 
pear.   Two  students  might  enter  HarVard  from  the  same 
196 


STUDENT  SOCIETIES  IN  MODERN  PERIOD.     I97 

school  and  by  the  same  examinations,  and  never  meet 
again  in  any  academic  work  during  their  entire  course. 
One  might  graduate  in  three  years,  the  other  in  four,  so 
they  would  be  placed  in  the  catalogue  of  graduates  as 
belonging  to  different  classes.*  At  Yale  conditions 
have  by  no  means  changed  so  rapidly.  The  men  study 
for  two  years  together  before  there  is  any  appreciable 
break  along  elective  lines.  The  students  gather  by 
classes  in  the  chapel;  their  voluntary  prayer-meetings 
are  class  gatherings.  They  row  and  play  football  by 
classes.  Even  the  college  journals,  secret  societies,  and 
debating  clubs  are  conducted  on  class  lines,  f  Yale,  how- 
ever, is  exceptionally  conservative  here  as  in  many  other 
respects.  The  conditions  in  the  great  universities  of  the 
We^  much  more  nearly  approximate  Harvard. 
/  In  all  the  colleges  and  universities  the  class  exists  as 
an  organization.  Tn  the  larger  institutions  it  has  ceased 
to  l3e  a  social  4)ower  and  is  chiefly  remembered  by  the 
old  customs  and  traditions  which  are  connected  with  it. 
These  are  carried  through  in  a  half-hearted  way,  which 
contrasts  in  a  marked  manner  with  their  former  vigour. 
In  the  smaller  colleges  which  train  three  fifths  of  the 
youth,  the  class  remains  with  much  of  its  old-time 
power  and  vigour.  The  changes  in  form  and  spirit 
which  have  taken  place  in  the  last  thirty  years  can  be 
most  satisfactorily  indrcated  by  outlining  the  conditions 
at  the  present  \at^.  The  class  of  to-day  is  strongly  in- 
stitutionalized^ It  possesses  a  written  constitution,  stat- 
ing its  aims;  defining  its  powers,  and  providing  for  a 
full  corps  of  officers.  These  are  the  usual  officers  of  all 
voluntary  associations:  the  president,  vice-president, 
secretary,  and  treasurer,  with  the  addition  of  -athletic 

*  Thayer,  W.  R.,  in  HarA-ard  Graduate  Magazine,  vol.  iii.  p.  468. 
f  Welch,  L.  S.,  and  Camp,  W.  C.     Yale :   her  Campus,  Class- 
rooms, and  Athletics,  p.  37. 


198  STUDENT  LIFE  AND  CUSTOMS. 

officers,  the  managers  of  the  various  teams,  and  a  num- 
ber of  ornamental  officials,  such  as  historian,  orator, 
poet,  jester,  whose  duties  are  nominal.  The  orna- 
mental officers  vary  greatly  among  the  different  institu- 
tions. The  students  of  Adelbert  College  elect  a  magis- 
ter  equorum;  the  position  is  usually  filled  by  the  most 
unpopular  man  in  the  class.  The  "  toughest  man  "  in 
the  class  is  often  chosen  chaplain,  and  the  most  eccen- 
tric individual  either  jester  or  sergeant-at-arms.  The 
term  of  the  offices  is  six  months  in  the  Western  colleges 
and  one  year  in  the  Eastern  institutions.  Class  meetings 
occur  at  intervals  of  a  month  or  more,  except  in  the  first 
and  last  years  of  the  course,  when  class  functions  are 
most  prominent. 

The  value  attached  to  class  offices  as  college  hon- 
ours varies  in  the  different  colleges.  The  presidency  is 
nearly  always  sought  after,  and  is  particularly  prized 
during  the  freshman  and  senior  years.  To  be  president 
of  one's  class,  however,  carries  with  it  more  prestige 
among  the  outside  public  than  within  college  walls. 
Whenever  the  offices  are  considered  highly  desirable, 
political  canvasses  are  organized  to  gain  possession  of 
them.  The  issue  is  generally  either  between  the  fra- 
ternity and  the  non-fraternity  element,  or  between  dif- 
ferent combinations  among  the  fraternities.  In  a  body 
as  small  as  the  average  college  class  the  personal  popu- 
larity of  the  candidate  is  an  element  that  must  always 
be  reckoned  with,  regardless  of  social  affiliations. 
There  is  usually  but  little  competition  for  the  minor 
offices,  although  a  good  treasurer  is  quite  as  essential 
to  the  prosperity  of  the  organization  as  a  good  presi- 
dent, and  is  much  more  difficult  to  discover. 

When  we  turn  to  the  functional  activity  of  the  class 
we  discover  that  a  great  change  has  taken  place  in  the 
last  thirty  years  in  the  manners  of  the  undergraduates. 
Hazing  and  rushing  are  gradually  disappearing.     Testi- 


STUDENT  SOCIETIES  IN  MODERN  PERIOD.    199 

mony  from  such  institutions  as  Tufts,*  Harvard,  and 
Yale  in  New  England,  Adelbert  and  Pennsylvania  in  ■ 
the  central  group  of  States,  Wisconsin,  Xebraska,  Be- 
loit,  and  Leland  Stanford  in  the  West,  all  point  in  the 
same  direction.  It  is  evident  that  the  old  customs  are^^ 
largely  perpetuated  from  a  sense  of  duty  to  the  tradi- 
tions of  the  past.  An  excellent  example  of  this  is  seen 
in  the  sophomore-freshman  rush  at  Harvard  known  as 
Bloody  Monday.  Occasionally  there  are  relapses  to  vio- 
lence with  serious  results,  like  the  accidents  at  Cornell 
and  the  Ohio  Wesleyan,  but  they  form  the  exception. 
The  gradual  disappearance  of  violence  has  been  com- 
monly credited  to  athletics.  It  may  be  questioned,  how- 
ever, whether  other  factors,  such  as  the  greater  age  of 
students  upon  entering  college,  and  the  general  mild- 
ness of  manners  characteristic  of  our  time,  have  not 
been  equally  potent  in  producing  the  result. 

The  class  has  certainly  come  to  have  a  recognised 
place  in  athletic  organization.  Each  class  is  repre- 
sented by  its  nine,  eleven,  and  track  team,  and  various 
interclass  contests  are  scheduled.  A  special  effort  is 
directed  to  developing  freshmen  teams  in  order  to  dis- 
cover athletic  capacity  among  the  newcomers.  Con- 
tests with  freshmen  teams  of  other  institutions  are  en- 
couraged for  the  same  reason.  It  rarely  happens  that 
there  is  any  very  live  interest  in  athletic  games  between 
the  classes,  although  the  attempt  is  frequently  made  to 
generate  some  artificial  enthusiasm.  Public  attention 
is  so  focused  on  the  college  team  that  few  students  care 
what  becomes  of  interclass  cups  and  championships. 

The  role  of  the  class  in  the  social  world  is  becoming 
more  important.  To  class  day  and  the  junior  exhibi- 
tion have  been  added  junior  proms  (or  promenades), 

*  Start,  A.  B.     History  of  Tufts  College,  p.  65,  contains  an 
interesting  account  of  the  abolition  of  hazing  in  that  institution. 


200  STUDENT  LIFE  AND  CUSTOMS. 

senior  hops  (balls  or  dances),  freshman  banquets,  and 
sophomore  cotillions.  These  are  the  great  public  so- 
cial events  of  the  college  year,  but  in  many  institu- 
tions they  have  long  since  ceased  to  belong  exclusively 
to  the  class  which  gives  them.  In  a  few  institutions, 
like  Beloit  College,  such  social  occasions  are  prohibited 
by  the  faculty;  in  a  few  others,  fraternities  and  cliques 
control  them.  In  some  of  the  larger  institutions  the 
class  occasions  have  ceased  to  be  representative,  as  the 
wealthy  element  predominates.  The  expense  of  the  last 
junior  "  prom  ^'  at  Yale  was  so  heavy  that  a  large  por- 
tion of  the  class  were  prevented  from  attending. 

In  the  great  majority  of  American  colleges  the  class 
publishes  the  annual  or  year  book.  Positions  on  the 
editorial  board  of  this  publication  are  eagerly  competed 
for.  The  class  in  its  official  capacity  occasionally  pre- 
sents farces  and  even  more  serious  dramatic  efforts.  In 
some  colleges  it  is  customary  for  each  class  to  produce  a 
farce  caricaturing  the  faculty  or  certain  of  its  un- 
popular members. 

In  general,  the  influence  of  the  class  has  declined. 
Instead  of  the  strong,  spontaneous,  all-powerful  asso- 
ciation of  forme^  days,  the  modern  class  is  simply  one 
among  the  many  organizations  of  college  life.  Yet  the 
picturesque  side  of  class  activity  seems  appreciated  as 
never  before.  That  somewhat  mysterious  sentiment 
known  as  "  class  feeling  "  does  not  appear  to  be  on  the 
decline.  At  the  University  of  Nebraska  it  is  reported 
as  being  on  the  increase,  in  spite  of  the  elective  system. 
Correspondents  from  Yanderbilt,  Leland  Stanford,  La- 
fayette, Beloit,  and  Bates  testify  to  its  growth.  There  is 
undoubtedly  a  strong  feeling  among  the  colleges  of  the 
country  to  the  effect  that  the  peculiar  flavour  of  college 
life  should  be  preserved.  This  tendency  is  seen  in  the 
movement  for  the  maintenance  of  a  distinct  academic 
costume — the  cap  and  gown;  in  the  revival  of  old  cus- 


STUDENT  SOCIETIES  IX  MODERN  PERIOD.    201 

toms,*  and  in  the  invention  of  new  ceremonials,  f  Such 
a  movement  has  a  significance  to  a  student  of  democracy, 
but  that  it  will  succeed  in  re-establishing  the  conditions 
which  made  the  old  common  life  of  the  class  so  effective 
seems  impossible. 

§  2.  Debatixg  Societies  ix  the  Modern  Period. 

There  exists  a  class  of  institutions,  small  in  num- 
ber but  respectable  from  their  academic  standing,  in 
which  there  are  found  no  student  organizations  aim- 
ing directly  at  practice  and  public  speaking.  Such 
practice  in  these  colleges  is  gained  either  from  courses 
in  forensics  from  oratorical  and  declamatory  contests  for 
medals  and  other  prizes,  or  else  it  is  not  obtained  at  all. 
Most  of  these  colleges  are  located  in  the  extreme  East, 
although  occasionally  one  may  be  discovered  in  the 
South  and  West.  Typical  institutions  of  this  class  are 
Brown,  Trinity,  and  AYesleyan,  and  in  the  West  the 
University  of  California. 

In  the  second  class  are  placed  those  u.niversities 
which  have  recently  organized  special  debating  clubs 
on  a  new  plan  and  chiefly  as  auxiliaries  for  intercollegi- 
ate debating.  Practice  for  beginners  and  the  mass  of 
students  is  obtained  in  a  series  of  class  debating  clubs 
which  serve  as  supports  for  a  university  debating  club 
or  debating  union,  which  is  reserved  for  picked  men 
and  advanced  students.  Such  organizations  are  solely 
for  the  purpose  of  obtaining  practice  in  debate,  and  are 
entirely  lacking  in  esprit  de  corps  and  social  features. 
Harvard  and  Yale  are  the  best  representatives  of  this 
class  of  institutions,  although  some  of  the  smaller  col- 
leges have  attempted  to  imitate  them.  At  Harvard  the 
system  was  adopted  after  considerable  experimentation, 

*  Columbia  University  Quarterly,  vol.  i,  p.  389. 
f  Start,  A.  B.    History  of  Tufts  College,  p.  71. 


202  STUDENT  LIFE  AND  CUSTOMS. 

which  began  in  1879,  with  an  attempt  to  reproduce  the 
Oxford  Union.  The  name  remained  until  1897,  but  the 
society  was  something  entirely  different. 

A  great  majority  of  American  colleges  belong  to  a 
third  class,  which  retains  the  old  debating  society,  but 
with  essential  modifications.  Discussions  here  are  likely 
to  be  on  j^olitical  and  social  topics,  and  extemporaneous 
discussions  are  most  popular.  The  social  features  have 
dwindled  to  a  tithe  of  their  former  greatness.  The 
collective  membership  of  the  societies  never  includes 
half  of  the  students,  and  frequently  not  more  than  seven 
or  eight  per  cent.  In  many  colleges  these  societies  serve 
as  a  rallying  point  for  the  non-fraternity  element,  al- 
though membership  is  never  exclusively  confined  to  it. 
In  such  institutions  the  societies  usually  furnish  a  ma- 
jority of  candidates  for  the  intercollegiate  debating  and 
oratorical  teams,  and  their  membership  is  from  the  more 
substantial  element  among  the  students.  This  general 
characterization  applies  to  Wisconsin,  Cornell,  Ne- 
braska, Minnesota,  and  Leland  Stanford  among  the 
larger  institutions,  and  Lafayette  and  Western  Eeserve 
among  the  well-equipped  colleges. 

In  the  fourth  and  last  class  of  colleges  the  debating 
society  still  remains  one  of  the  potent  factors  of  student 
life.  It  maintains  its  position  as  a  social  centre.  So- 
ciety rivalry  waxes  keen  and  society  anniversaries  are 
numbered  among  the  important  events  of  the  academic 
year.  Princeton  alone,  of  imiversities  of  the  first  rank, 
adheres  to  this  system,  largely  by  reason  of  its  conserva- 
tive conditions  and  hostility  to  fraternities.  However, 
it  is  commonly  reported  that,  notwithstanding  their 
magnificent  halls  and  official  recognition,  the  Princeton 
societies  are  losing  their  hold  from  year  to  year.  The 
remaining  institutions  of  this  class  are  local  in  charac- 
ter— small  colleges,  and  colleges  existing  in  peculiar  en- 
vironments, where  for  various  reasons  the  fraternity  has 


STUDEXT  SOCIETIES  IX  MODERN  PERIOD.    203 

not  yet  entered  in  sufficient  strength  to  be  a  disturbing 
factor.  The  institutions  of  this  class  are  usually  de- 
nominational colleges. 

To  understand  public  speaking  in  American  col- 
leges during  the  last  quarter  of  a  century  it  is  necessary 
first  to  survey  a  number  of  parallel  movements.  First- 
ly, there  has  been  an  important  change  in  the  ideals  of 
public  speaking.  Oratory  as  a  fine  art  is  on  the  decline. 
Public  speaking  is  coming  to  be  considered  merely  as  a 
means  to  an  end;  form  is  being  subordinated  to  sub- 
stance. Clearness  and  accuracy  are  valued  above  ora- 
torical fervour  and  redundancy  of  expression.  In  many 
quarters  high  sentiments  and  passionate  declamation 
are  likely  to  produce  amusement.  To  characterize  a 
public  man  as  a  great  orator  savours  of  irony.  This 
revolution  has  been  brought  about  by  the  increased  at- 
tention to  science  in  modern  education,  and  by  the  gen- 
eral improvement  of  public  taste.  The  movement  is 
confined  to  the  critical  portion  of  the  professional 
classes,  and  has  scarcely  touched  the  vast  mass  of  the 
population  who  are  as  susceptible  to  oratorical  appeals 
now  as  in  the  past. 

The  smaller  colleges  of  the  West — which,  as  we  have 
before  indicated,  remain  in  close  touch  with  the  ideals 
of  the  middle  class — specialize  in  the  line  of  popular 
oratory.  Besides  inter-society  contests,  State  and  inter- 
state leagues  are  formed  as  an  additional  stimulus. 
Ten  States  and  one  hundred  colleges  were  represented 
in  an  oratorical  lea^ie  which  existed  in  the  ^lississippi 
Valley  in  1895.  This  league  by  no  means  represented 
the  complete  strength  of  the  movement,  because  many 
State  and  local  lea.srues  were  unrepresented  for  geo- 
graphical reasons.  There  has  been  a  discernible  tend- 
ency for  r  "  ^'ations,  particularly  the  Prohi- 
bition part  he  intercollegiate  oratorical  as- 
sociation a                      :  propaganda.     One  representa- 


204  STUDENT  LIFE  AND  CUSTOMS. 

tive  from  each  college  is  chosen  for  the  State  contest. 
The  intercollegiate  contest  takes  place  between  the  can- 
didates who  have  been  successful  in  the  local  compe- 
tition. Women  often  take  a  high  rank  in  these  ex- 
hibitions.* 

The  limitations  of  these  contest  orations  are  obvi- 
ous. Confined  to  two  thousand  words  or  ten  minutes, 
the  youthful  orator  must  immediately  plunge  into  in- 
vective paradox,  antithesis,  and  solemn  warning,  which 
might  well  become  experienced  statesmen  at  the  end 
of  a  three  hours'  speech  in  the  Senate,  but  which  sounds 
absurd  when  delivered  by  a  sophomore  who  has  never 
voted  or  studied  the  elements  of  economics.  Most  of 
these  orations  are  high-keyed  and  artificial.  The  temp- 
tation to  phrase-making,  to  spectacular  displays  of  rhet- 
oric, proves  too  much  for  the  majority  of  competitors 
in  these  contests.  They  usually  pay  but  meagre  atten- 
tion to  the  accuracy  of  the  facts  on  which  their  pleas 
are  based,  and  their  presentation  lacks  all  that  strength 
which  comes  from  reserve  and  moderation,  while  to 
an  outsider  who  for  the  first  time'  listens  to  one  of  these 
displays  the  effect  is  somewhat  startling.  After  a  time 
one  detects  the  scanty  fund  of  commonplaces,  and  tires 
of  the  reiterated  appeals  to  do  something,  to  stand 
alone,  accompanied  with  references  to  Thermopylae 
and  Brutus,  Luther  and  Calvin,  Washington,  Lincoln, 
and  Grant.  While  space  will  not  permit  us  to  include 
quotations  from  these  addresses,  some  idea  of  their  aims 
may  be  obtained  from  their  titles.  Among  the  ora- 
tions delivered  at  the  interstate  contest  in  1895  were 
the  following:  "American  Literary  Genius,''  "The 
Better  Personality,"  "The  Statecraft  of  Napoleon," 
"  The  Province  of  Law,"  "  The  Hero  of  Compromise," 


*  For  an  account  of  these  contests  see  article  by  Albert  Shaw, 
College  Oratory  in  the  West,  Review  of  Reviews,  vol.  xi,  p.  665. 


STUDENT  SOCIETIES  IN   MODERN   PERIOD.    205 

"  Fidelity  to  an  Ideal,"  "  Our  Xation's  Safeguard,"  "  A 
Plea  for  Shylock,"  and  "  Social  Progress." 

A  competent  critic  is  likely  to  condemn  the  entire 
practice  as  mischievous  and  worthless.  He  is  wearied 
by  the  hazy  thinking  and  disgusted  by  the  platitudes. 
With  the  editor  of  The  Nation,  he  knows  that  one  may 
talk  for  hours  and  say  nothing  on  any  subject  similar  to 
those  enumerated  above,  and  that  the  perfection  of  the 
type  would  result  in  nothing  better  than  a  half-poetic 
rhapsody  worthy  of  Ossian.*  And  it  is  not  to  be 
denied  that  an  excessive  indulgence  in  this  t3^pe  of  pub- 
lic speaking  destroys  a  man's  capacity  for  accurate 
thinking,  and  tempts  him  to  premature  expressions  of 
opinion  on  subjects  of  which  he  is  ignorant;  views 
which  he  afterward  feels  himself  bound  to  defend. 
More  serious  yet,  excessive  rhetorical  display  causes  a 
young  man  to  mistake  high-sounding  combinations  of 
words  vague  and  meaningless  for  real  concepts. 

Admitting  that  such  perversions  are  common  and 
should  be  guarded  against,  is  there  not,  after  all,  some- 
thing to  be  said  for  the  oration?  Is  not  youth  a  period 
of  large  ambitions,  of  high  aspirations  and  dreams;  and 
can  it  be  complete  if  all  opportunities  for  the  expression 
of  these  sentiments  are  eliminated?  To  the  writer  it 
would  appear  that  the  oration  has  a  legitimate  function 
in  the  preparation  of  youth  in  the  higher  schools.  In- 
dulgence in  the  rhetorical  impulse  is  necessary  if  in  the 
future  the  public  man  is  to  rise  above  mere  technic 
and  detail  to  a  higher  plane.    High  sentiments  and  he- 

*  Godkin,  E.  L.  Collegiate  Oratory,  The  Nation,  vol.  xxvi,  p.  38. 
The  speeches  consisted  mostly  of  commonplaces  and  platitudes 
taken  in  a  loose  way  from  the  most  accessible  books  and  poorly 
put  together.  Not  one  bore  the  evidence  of  careful  preparation 
as  regards  facts  and  logic.  All  the  speeches  kept  pretty  clear  of 
fact  and  avoided  anything  like  an  argument ;  none  contained  any 
sign  ot  wide,  accurate  reading. 


206  STUDENT  LIFE  AND   CUSTOMS. 

roic  points  of  view  are  as  legitimate  and  influential 
expressions  of  the  human  spirit  as  accurate  generaliza- 
tions. A  certain  modern  tendency  to  depreciate  every- 
thing but  mere  organized  facts  is  born  of  a  shallow 
rationalism  and  a  mechanical  commercialism;  such  a 
tendency  is  based  on  a  mistaken  conception  of  the  needs 
of  active  life.  However,  to  be  of  value  from  a  peda- 
gogical standpoint,  the  oration  should  be  based  on  fact, 
and  should  represent  the  real  opinions  of  the  speakers; 
otherwise  it  degenerates  into  the  cant  and  affectation  of 
sentiment. 

Intercollegiate  debating  on  a  large  scale  is  the  re- 
sult of  the  last  decade.*  Contests  between  high  schools 
and  academies  have  taken  place  for  many  years,  and  it 
was  from  these  that  the  idea  of  intercollegiate  debating 
originated.  The  present  movement  began  in  1889, 
when  Harvard  sent  the  first  challenge  to  Yale.  Despite 
considerable  ridicule,  the  proposition  was  accepted,  and 
into  the  association  thus  formed  Princeton  was  after- 
ward admitted.  Other  important  leagues  are  the  Penn- 
sylvania-Cornell combination  in  the  central  States,  the 
union  of  Michigan,  Wisconsin,  Chicago,  and  North- 
western in  the  West,  and  the  California-Stanford  alli- 
ance on  the  Pacific  coast. 

In  1893  f  a  scheme' was  proposed  by  which  all  the 
colleges  of  the  country  were  to  be  united  in  one  alliance. 
Each  month  a  question  for  debate  was  proposed  by  the 
alliance,  which  was  to  be  discussed  by  the  individual  in- 
stitutions. The  advantages  ascribed  to  this  plan  by  the 
promoters  were  numerous;  it  was  thought  that  such  a 
demand  for  knowledge  on  certain  subjects  would  be 
created  that  the  popular  magazines  could  be  induced  to 

*  E.in,2:walt,  R.  C.    Intercollegiate  Debating,  The  Forum,  vol. 
xxii,  p.  633.    Sketches  of  the  history  of  intercollegiate  debating. 
f  See  Carl  Vrooman,  The  Arena,  vol.  x,  pp.  677-683. 


STUDENT  SOCIETIES  IN  MODERN  PERIOD.    207 

print  a  large  number  of  articles  dealing  with  the  ques- 
tions. The  plan  aimed  chiefly  at  arousing  a  more  gen- 
eral student  interest  in  debating  matters.  Questions  of 
great  interest,  dealt  with  monthly  by  the  ablest  men 
in  the  institution,  would  gather  larger  audiences  and 
thereby  stimulate  interest.  The  men  were  to  choose 
sides  according  to  their  convictions,  instead  of  being 
assigned  questions  at  random.  This  change  would  put 
an  end  to  simulated  sentiments  and  unreal  passion,  and 
place  the  entire  debate  on  a  substantial  basis.  A  record 
of  the  votes  taken  on  the  different  questions  was  to  be 
preserved  as  an  index  of  student  opinion.  The  plan 
came  to  nothing,  but  contains  some  just  criticism  on  the 
methods  then  in  vogue. 

The  constitution  of  an  intercollegiate  debating 
league  is  simple  and  elastic;  a  committee  from  each  col- 
lege arranges  the  details,  the  colleges  alternately  pro- 
pose the  questions  for  debate,  the  second  institution 
having  the  choice  of  sides,  thus  insuring  the  acceptance 
of  a  proposition  with  two  well-balanced  aspects.  ISTo 
graduate  of  either  college  may  serve  on  the  board  of 
judges,  and  no  judge  may  be  chosen  except  by  the  unani- 
mous consent  of  both  committees.  Within  the  univer- 
sity itself  the  different  debating  societies  choose  rep- 
resentatives, who  compete  before  a  committee  of  the 
faculty  which  selects  four  men.  In  some  colleges  men 
outside  of  the  colleges  compete,  while  under  the  system 
which  prevailed  at  Harvard  for  a  number  of  years,  any 
member  of  the  university  might  compete  in  a  five-min- 
utes speech.  This  plan  was  found  ineffective,  because  it 
afforded  the  committee  no  adequate  data  from  which  to 
make  their  judgment. 

The  debaters  chosen,  a  serious  course  of  training  is 
at  once  undertaken:  either  the  debaters  or  their  special 
advisers  in  the  faculty  issue  a  bibliography  of  all  the 
books   and   articles   bearing   on   the   subject   for   dis- 


208  STUDENT  LIFE  AND   CUSTOMS. 

cussion.  The  debaters  then  cover  the  field  in  a  thor- 
ough course  of  general  reading.  When  this  is  com- 
pleted they  meet,  compare  notes,  and  divide  the  field, 
each  man  being  apportioned  some  particular  line  of 
argument  and  investigation.  The  preparatory  process 
being  completed,  they  prepare  a  logical  outline  or  skele- 
ton of  their  line  of  argument,  which  is  given  to  the 
coach  for  criticism.  From  this  time  on  the  coaching 
forms  the  principal  element  in  the  training.*  The 
chief  coach  is  usually  a  professor  in  the  department  of 
history  or  English,  and  supervises  the  entire  process, 
and  is  assisted  by  instructors  in  elocution  and  others. 
Under  this  expert  direction  the  contestants  write  down 
and  commit  a  set  speech,  although  at  times  this  is  not 
intended  to  fill  the  entire  time  at  their  disposal.  Dur- 
ing the  period  of  preparation  the  training  is  severe  and 
rigorous;  the  debater  is  criticised  and  exercised  on  all 
points  of  doubtful  strength;  he  is  daily  forced  to  meet 
in  impromptu  argunient  the  ablest  men  of  the  college, 
whether  professors  or  old  debaters.  The  influence  of 
modern  athletic  training  is  evident  here;  in  some  cases 
the  influence  has  been  direct. 

In  the  debate  each  speaker  has  either  fifteen  or 
twenty  minutes  for  an  opening  speech,  and  in  some  cases 
is  allowed  five  minutes  in  which  to  refute  the  arguments 
of  his  opponents.  In  other  debates  the  third  speaker 
only  hazards  the  risk  of  reply.  Instances  have  been 
known  in  which  one  side  attempted  no  extemporaneous 
speaking  whatever,  and  yet  won  the  contest.  The  ques- 
tions chosen  usually  involve  some  public  issue,  but  so 
worded  and  limited  as  to  confine  the  discussion  to  the 


*  See  Ringwalt,  R.  C,  Intercollegiate  Debating,  Forum,  vol. 
xxii,  and  Albert  Bushnell  Hart's  Introduction  in  Brooking's  and 
Ringwalt's  Briefs  for  Debates,  for  an  account  on  the  different 
steps  in  the  training  of  debaters. 


STUDENT  SOCIETIES   IX  MODERN  PERIOD.     209 

expediency  aspect  of  the  problem.  The  speeches  are 
fluent,  logical,  well-arranged  expositions.  They  are 
usually  framed  too  closely  in  a  common  plan  to  sustain 
interest;  their  collective  effect  is  likely  to  be  monoto- 
nous. Xotwithstanding  the  modejate  tone  of  the  speak- 
ers, the  debate  is  often  the  occasion  for  great  enthusiasm. 
Delegations  of  students  make  noisy  demonstrations,  and 
the  winning  team  receives  "  tremendous  ovations.'-* 
Considerable  local  fame  in  the  line  of  newspaper  biog- 
raphies falls  to  the  lot  of  the  intercollegiate  debater. 
He  sometimes  receives  a  more  substantial  reward  in 
money  prizes  which  are  d>v'ided  among  the  successful 
contestants.  The  existence  of  such  inducements  illus- 
trates the  essential  artificial  character  of  intercollegiate 
debating.  Its  popularity  is  confined  to  a  small  portion 
of  the  students.  The  faculty  and  the  outside  public 
foster  debating,  but  it  is  not  a  native  interest  of  the 
majority  of  students. 

•  Intercollegiate  debating,  with  its  careful  training 
and  statement  of  facts,  forms  a  valuable  antidote  to  the 
tendencies  of  American  stump-speaking.  A  distin- 
guished critic  has  referred  to  our  national  style  as  turgid 
and  inflated,  as  marked  by  rhetoric,  which  is  Rhodian 
rather  than  Attic,  overloaded  with  tropes  and  figures, 
and  aiming  to  conceal  poverty  or  triteness  in  the 
thought  by  profusion  of  ornament,  and  appeals  to  senti- 
ment too  lofty  for  the  subject  or  occasion.*  It  is  when 
contrasted  with  such  a  style  that  we  are  able  fully  to  ap- 
preciate the  training  which  the  college  course  in  foren- 
sics  and  the  intercollegiate  debate  are  offering  to  the 
youth  of  to-day.  The  careful  preparation,  the  absence 
of  display,  the  analysis  of  argument,  lay  the  foundations 
for  a  new  style  of  public  speaking.     It  is  when  con- 

*  Bryce.  James.  The  American  Commonwealth,  vol.  ii,  chap. 
cxi.    American  Oratorv. 

14 


210  STUDENT  LIFE  AND  CUSTOMS. 

trasted  with  the  speeches  delivered  in  legislative  bodies 
and  printed  in  the  Congressional  Eecord  that  the  merits 
of  the  new  mode  of  training  become  apparent.  A  com- 
petent observer  has  said  that  the  average  intercollegiate 
debater  speaks  with  more  clearness  and  accuracy  than 
the  ordinary  member  of  Congress. 

But  the  new  movement  has  not  been  without  its 
critics.  The  complaint  most  commonly  heard  is  that 
the  coaching  is  overdone;  the  debates  are  gradually  be- 
coming contests  between  rival  college  faculties.*  It 
can  not  be  denied  that  the  coaching  is  the  most  impor- 
tant factor  in  determining  victories,  and  that  success  in 
intercollegiate  contests  is  no  test  of  the  vitality  of  the 
debating  interest  in  the  different  colleges.  Eecognising 
the  danger.  Harvard  proposed  to  the  Eastern  League 
that  action  be  taken  to  check  this  tendency.  Failing  in 
this  endeavour,  the  Harvard  debaters  attempted  a  re- 
form within  their  own  boundaries.  The  faculty  were  no 
longer  to  arrange  the  lines  of  argument  for  the  debaters, 
to  criticise  their  speeches,  or  even  to  debate  with  them. 
General  directions  as  to  reading,  and  suggestions  from 
the  teaching  body  as  to  elocution,  were  still  to  continue. 
The  experiment  is  comparatively  recent,  and  the  results 
of  the  two  systems  have  not  been  thoroughly  tested,  f 

Connected  with  the  preceding  criticism  is  the  ob- 
jection that  the  present  system  discourages  original- 
ity of  thought  and  spontaneity  of  expression.  The 
speeches  are  cast  in  one  mould;  there  is  a  dead  level 
of  mediocrity.  An  English  visitor  has  recorded  his 
impressions  to  this  effect:  He  found  an  intercollegiate 

*  For  admissions  of  and  protests  against  this  fact  see  Harvard 
Graduate  Magazine,  vol.  v,  pp.  398,  545 ;  Brodt,  P.  E.,  Debatingr 
Societies  at  Columbia,  Columbia  University  Quarterly,  vol.  i,  p.  52. 

f  Since  this  paragraph  was  written,  recent  changes  in  the  East- 
ern League  have  reduced  faculty  coaching  to  a  minimum. 


STUDENT  SOCIETIES  IN  MODERN   PERIO.,^ 

debate  serious  to  the  point  of  dulness,  lacking  in  ti  i  . 
humorous  and  satirical  thrusts  which  were  found  in,*; 
the  best  speeches  of  the  Oxford  and  Cambridge  unions.* 
Ethical  objections  have  been  raised  to  the  plan  of  as- 
signing men  positions  on  debates  regardless  of  personal 
opinions.  Except  as  a  preparation  for  the  bar,  it  is 
urged  that  the  ability  to  maintain  any  given  thesis  is  of 
doubtful  expediency,  particularly  in  youth,  when  there 
is  a  natural  tendency  toward  sophistry.  If  the  ques- 
tions dealt  with  were  primarily  ethical  in  character  and 
affected  the  foundations  either  of  morals  or  of  social 
theory,  such  an  objection  might  have  some  force.  How- 
ever, as  most  of  the  debates  deal  only  with  the  questions 
of  detail  and  political  expediency,  this  criticism  loses 
much  of  its  cogency. 

In  conclusion,  we  may  summarize  the  weaknesses  of 
the  intercollegiate  debate  by  saying  that  it  completes 
the  training  on  too  low  a  level.  It  gives  admirable 
preparation  for  public  speaking  up  to  a  certain  point, 
but  the  inherent  artificiality  of  the  system  prevents  it 
from  approximating  the  actual  conditions  of  public 
speaking,  and  consequently  it  is  by  no  means  conducive 
to  developing  the  higher  reaches  of  oratory.  Then, 
again,  its  resources  are  concentrated  on  a  few  men,  to  the 
neglect  of  the  majority.  With  the  present  apathy  of 
the  collegiate  public  toward  debating,  it  was  probably 
the  only  method  which  would  have  met  with  even  a 
moderate  degree  of  success.  By  enlisting  intercol- 
legiate rivalry  on  its  behalf,  it  has  attracted  public  at- 
tention and  thus  prepared  the  way  for  future  progress. 

*  Percy  Gardiner,  in  The  Nineteenth  Century.  Impressions  of 
American  Universities,  January,  1899,  p.  110.  "  The  youthful  ora- 
tor seemed  to  me  to  equal  or  surpass  our  English  undergraduate 
debaters  in  fluency  and  ease,  but  I  was  not  greatly  impressed  with 
their  debating  force.  They  seemed  rather  to  repeat  a  prepared 
theme  than  to  demolish  one  another,  or  really  grip  the  subject." 


STUDENT  LIFE  AND  CUSTOMS. 
210 

The  ideals  of  intercollegiate  debating  have  been 
trastiosely  interwoven  with  the  courses  of  collegiate  instruc- 
ar  tion  in  the  department  of  forensics.  The  colleges  had 
given  considerable  attention  to  public  speaking  from  the 
pre-Eevolutionary  period  on;  but,  until  recently,  such 
attention  was  confined  to  rhetoric,  opportunities  for  dis- 
play at  Commencement,  and  other  exhibitions,  and 
coaching  of  a  somewhat  desultory  character.  The  in- 
struction was  weak  along  theoretical  lines,  and  the  criti- 
cism devoted  mainly  to  the  accessories  of  style  and  elo- 
cution. Contemporaneous  with  the  intercollegiate  de- 
bating movement  an  effort  has  been  made  to  place  such 
instruction  on  a  scientific  basis.  The  specialists  in  thi^ 
department  have  produced  a  number  of  valuable  hand- 
books. Rhetorical  teaching  has  departed  from  its  old 
structural  definition  standpoint  and  taken  up  with  the 
new  point  of  view  of  function.  The  struggle  for  a 
higher  standard  in  English  composition  and  the  rapid 
growth  of  scientific  treatment  of  institutional  history 
have  aided  in  the  reconstruction  of  the  debating  ideal. 
As  the  university  courses  of  instruction  illustrate 
the  current  tendencies  in  public  speaking,  it  has  been 
thought  worth  while  to  devote  considerable  space  to 
their  consideration.  In  order  to  arrive  at  some  tenta- 
tive conclusions,  a  statistical  study  was  made  of  the 
courses  in  oratory,  forensics,  and  elocution  in  seven- 
teen representative  colleges.  The  larger  universities 
and  colleges  were  selected  because  of  their  probable 
more  immediate  response  to  modern  conditions.  The 
smaller  colleges  tend  more  frequently  to  represent  the 
conditions  of  the  past.  Of  the  seventeen  colleges,  six — 
Harvard,  Brown,  Columbia,  Cornell,  Pennsylvania,  and 
Princeton — were  selected  as  typical  of  the  East.  For  the 
West,  not  only  the  leading  universities — Michigan,  Wis- 
consin, Minnesota,  Northwestern,  and  Chicago — were 
chosen,  but  likewise  two  large  Western  colleges,  Oberlin 


STUDENT   SOCIETIES   IN  MODERN   PERIOD.     213 

and  the  Ohio  Wesleyan.  The  South  is  represented  by 
Johns  Hopkins,  Virginia,  and  Vanderbilt;  the  Pacific 
slope  by  Leland  Stanford  and  the  University  of  Califor- 
nia. In  all  cases  the  data  were  collated  from  the  regis- 
ters of  the  year  1898-'99. 

Omitting  duplications  in  the  professional  schools, 
the  seventeen  institutions  offered  one  hundred  and  four 
courses  of  instruction  in  preparation  for  the  different 
forms  of  public  speaking.  By  a  rough  estimate,  the 
average  college  offered  six  distinct  courses  of  instruction. 
Among  the  different  colleges  there  was  a  great  variation 
in  the  amount  of  work  ofiered,  Chicago  and  Minnesota 
leading  with  twelve  and  ten  courses  respectively,  Vir- 
ginia giving  only  one.  An  equally  great  contrast  was 
apparent  in  the  emphasis  on  the  subjects  of  instruc- 
tion. Chicago  seemed  to  specialize  on  elocutionary 
training,  Cornell  in  furnishing  immediate  opportunities 
for  speakng.  Harvard  in  the  theory  of  argumentation. 
In  many  colleges  the  courses  in  f  orensics  and  oratory  are 
so  intermingled  with  the  instruction  in  English  that  it 
was  impossible  to  estimate  the  actual  amount  of  time 
given  each.  Probably  the  amoimt  of  teaching  done  in 
an  average  institution  of  this  class  would  need  approxi- 
mately the  entire  services  of  two  instructors. 

The  classification  of  these  courses,  without  first-hand 
acquaintance  with  their  contents,  is  an  undertaking  in- 
volving considerable  risk.  The  announcements  are  not 
always  definite  in  their  outline  of  the  courses  which  are 
sometimes  composite  in  character;  and  it  is  scarcely 
necessary  to  add  that  such  statements  usually  represent 
what  the  instructors  hope  to  accomplish  rather  than  the 
territory  usually  covered  in  the  class-room  work.  In 
consequence,  the  following  conclusions  are  of  service 
only  in  the  most  general  way:  The  entire  one  hundred 
and  four  courses  fall  into  four  main  divisions — (1)  gen- 
eral introductory,  (2)  elocution  and  voice  culture,  (3) 


214  STUDENT  LIFE  AND  CUSTOMS. 

forensics,  and  (4)  oratory.  Under  the  heading,  general 
introductory,  have  been  included  only  those  courses 
which  distinctly  announce  their  relation  to  the  work  in 
public  speaking;  ordinary  courses  in  English  have  been 
omitted.  Only  ten  general  introductory  courses  are 
offered.  The  next  main  division,  elocution  and  voice 
culture,  leads  with  fifty-five  courses^  sixteen  of  which 
are  special  and  given  over  to  the  reading  and  interpre- 
tation of  Shakespeare,  the  Bible,  lyrical  poetry,  and 
hymns.  Forensics,  argumentative  composition,  and 
debating  come  next  in  importance  with  twenty-four 
courses,  six  of  which  consist  of  actual  practice  in  de- 
bating. Most  diversified  are  the  courses  falling  under 
the  general  description  of  oratory.  Out  of  the  fifteen 
courses,  six  are  devoted  to  general  practice  and  im- 
promptu speaking,  five  to  the  survey  of  the  oratorical 
field,  and  four  lay  special  stress  on  the  history  of  ora- 
tory and  public  speaking. 

Three  or  four  conclusions  may  be  drawn  from  this 
study:  Firstly,  it  seems  probable  that,  in  so  far  as  the 
extent  of  territory  covered  is  concerned,  the  instruction 
is  adequate.  Some  of  the  universities  tend  to  sub- 
divide the  field  unduly,  while  others  go  to  the  contrary 
extreme  and  advertise  more  lines  of  study  than  can 
possibly  be  followed  efficiently  in  one  course.  Second- 
ly, the  predominance  of  elocutionary  training  and  ana- 
lytic argumentation  is  strikingly  in  evidence,  they  com- 
prising seventy-three  out  of  one  hundred  and  four 
courses.  On  the  other  hand,  the  history  of  public 
speaking,  including  its  relations  to  political  and  social 
life,  is  scantily  treated.  The  most  common  methods  are 
either  to  dissect  two  or  three  speeches,  usually  those  of 
Burke  or  Webster,  or  hastily  to  survey  the  history  of 
oratory  from  Demosthenes  to  Gladstone,  which  survey 
largely  consists  of  striking  anecdotes  of  doubtful  origin. 
Neither  of  these  methods  seems  to  meet  the  student's 


toiUDENT  SOCIETIES  IN  MODERN  PERIOD/    215 

need.  The  most  valuable  training  appears  to  come  from 
that  intangible  growth  which  is  the  result  of  close  con- 
tact with  the  works  of  masters.  In  oratory  such  an 
understanding  will  rarely  come  from  the  analysis  of 
lines  of  argument,  or  the  minute  study  of  one  or  two 
speeches. 

The  relations  between  the  debating  society  and  the 
college  department  of  forensics  are  usually  cordial, 
each  supplementing  the  other.  In  order  to  determine 
these  relations  more  accurately,  however,  a  circular  note 
was  despatched  to  the  chief  instructors  in  the  seven- 
teen institutions  before  mentioned.  Fourteen  replies 
were  received;  of  these,  twelve  considered  the  debating 
society  a  valuable  adjunct  of  their  work,  w^hile  two  con- 
ditionally opposed  it.  At  ISTorthwestern  and  Minne- 
sota the  departments  have  been  the  means  of  establish- 
ing new  discussion  clubs.  The  instructors  favour  the  de- 
bating society  because  it  gives  the  men  practice,  teaches 
them  tolerance,  and  offers  them  a  chance  to  apply 
knowledge.  They  criticise  the  debating  society  for  the 
lack  of  critical  standards,  and  for  the  vague  thinking 
and  pompous  diction  which  it  is  said  to  foster. 

§  3.  The  Fraterxity  ix  the  Moderx  Period. 

During  the  last  thirty  years  the  fraternities  have 
entered  upon  a  new  stage  of  their  development;  with 
the  storm  and  stress  period  of  their  history  behind  them, 
they  have  been  free  to  perfect  the  details  of  their  system 
and  to  expand.  As  early  as  1871  a  movement  toward 
the  centralization  of  the  various  societies  was  inaugu- 
rated. The  old  system  of  control  by  central  or  parent 
chapters  when  the  convention  was  not  in  session  gave 
way  to  central  governing  boards,  usually  known  as  ex- 
ecutive councils,  composed  of  alumni,  which  performed 
functions  similar  to  those  delegated  to  the  boards  of 


216  STUDENT  LIFE  AND  CUSTOMS. 

trustees  in  American  colleges.  In  this  body  is  vested 
the  ownership  of  the  fraternity  property.  The  deter- 
mination of  fraternity  policy  remained  to  conventions 
of  delegates  consisting  largely  of  undergraduates.  Many 
of  the  fraternities  have  divided  the  college  territory  of 
the  country  into  provinces^,  and  shown  great  insight  and 
judgment  in  the  location  *'of  chapters.  It  has  been 
claimed  that  the  action  of  the  larger  societies  in  issuing 
and  withdrawing  charters  may  be  taken  as  an  almost 
sure  index  of  the  future  of  the  college.* 

In  recent  years  the  influence  of  the  alumni  has  in- 
creased greatly,  and  many  of  the  societies  have  endeav- 
oured to  still  further  augment  this  influence  by  estab- 
lishing alumni  chapters  and  fraternity  clubs.  .  In  a  few 
instances  the  alumni  chapters  are  regularly  organized, 
hold  sessions,  and  send  delegates  to  conventions,  but  in 
a  majority  of  cases  they  are  chapters  only  in  name. 
Fraternity  clubs  are  a  more  natural  expression  of  in- 
terest. Several  fraternity  clubs  have  been  founded  in 
New  York,  San  Francisco,  and  elsewhere.  Two  or 
three  societies  have  established  sunnner  camps  in  the 
woods  for  the  recreation  of  their  members,  f 

The  chapters  at  the  stronger  fraternity  centres  are 
coming  to  partake  more  and  more  of  the  character  of 
social  clubs.  The  progress  of  the  club  idea  may  be 
traced  in  the  architecture  of  the  fraternity  houses. 
The  earlier  structures  were  built  as  lodge  rooms  or 
temples  for  general  meeting  places  only,  while  the  more 
recent  buildings  are  complete  club  houses,  containing 
public  rooms,  lodge  rooms,  and  sleeping  apartments. 
Many  of  the  modern  fraternity  houses  are  ornate  and  ex- 
pensive structures,  of  which  their  members  are  justly 

*  See  The  Independent,  August  3,  1899,  an  article  by  W.  A. 
Curtis,  The  Decline  of  the  Denominational  College. 

f  W.  R,  Baird.  American  College  Fraternities,  fourth  edition, 
p.  23. 


STUDENT  SOCIETIES  IX  MODERN   PERIOD.     217 

proud.  The  club  idea  finds  its  freest  expression  at  Har- 
vard, where  the  typical  societies  are  local  and  uncon- 
nected, and  therefore  in  a  position  to  respond  quickly  to 
the  movement  of  the  age.  A  recent  writer  speaks  of 
Harvard  club  life  in  the  following  strain:  "  The  small 
clubs  are  not  conducive  to  sustained  effort  in  the  public 
service  on  the  part  of  their  members,  but,  after  all,  their 
seductions  are  not  necessarily  irresistible.  .  .  .  For  su- 
perior men  who  are  too  active  to  be  pocketed,  the  clubs 
are  pleasant  without  being  unprofitable.  There  are 
usually  such  leaders  among  the  Harvard  clubmen,  but 
they  are  leaders  because  it  is  in  them,  and  rather  in  spite 
of  the  clubs  than  because  of  them."  * 

It  may  be  remarked  in  this  connection,  however, 
that  in  adopting  club  life  the  students  of  our  wealthier 
colleges  have  only  followed  the  lead  of  the  society  of 
which  they  form  a  part.  Of  the  merits  and  demerits  of 
club  life  in  general  it  is  not  our  purpose  to  discuss  here, 
although  it  may  be  added  that  this  tendency  does  not 
seem  to  have  attracted  the  attention  of  educators  to 
an  extent  proportioned  to  its  importance,  f 

Among  the  geographical  types  of  fraternities,  the  so- 
cieties of  the  Southern  group,  founded  soon  after  the 
conclusion  of  the  civil  war,  have  spread  rapidly  in  the 
last  thirty  years.     Sectional  lines  are  rapidly  becoming 

*  Edward  S.  Martin.  Undergraduate  Life  at  Harvard,  Scrib- 
ner's  Magazine,  vol.  xxi,  p.  543.  Mr.  Martin  also  adds :  "  The  clubs 
have  their  uses,  but  probably  the  most  satisfactory  talk  that  goes 
on  between  undergraduates  is  not  the  talk  of  the  clubs,  but  the 
seasoned  communication  born  of  affinity  which  passes  from  man 
to  man  by  gaslight  in  the  college  rooms." 

f  W.  R.  Thayer  traces  the  rise  of  the  club  idea  at  Harvard 
in  an  article,  Shall  we  have  a  University  Club?  in  the  Harvard 
Graduate  Magazine,  vol.  iii,  pp.  474,  475.  Some  aspects  of  club 
life  at  Harvard  are  described  by  C.  M.  Flandrau  in  his  Harvard 
Episodes — Wolcott  the  Magnificent. 


218  STUDENT  LIFE  AND  CUSTOMS. 

obliterated,  especially  between  the  West  and  South;  the 
Eastern  group  have  been  much  more  conservative  than 
the  other  two  in  expanding,  although  their  chapters  are 
found  side  by  side  with  the  other  two  types  at  such 
recent  foundations  as  Chicago  and  Leland  Stanford. 
While  sectional  lines  are  tending  to  disappear  and  all 
the  general  fraternities  are  becoming  national,  each  so- 
ciety is  coming  more  and  more  to  stand  forji,.jxzedjLdfial_ 
of  culture.  For  instance.  Fraternity  A  makes  wealth 
the  criterion  of  membership.  Fraternity  B  literary  ca- 
pacity. Fraternity  C  sporting  tastes.  Fraternity  D  all- 
round  good  fellowship  or  social  qualities,  and  so  on 
throughout  the  list.  In  the  older  colleges  of  the  East 
these  characteristics  are  more  firmly  fixed  than  else- 
where, and  the  same  society  usually  has  the  same  ideal 
in  different  colleges,  while  in  the  West  the  same  frater- 
nity may  stand  for  different  ideals  in  different  institu- 
tions. In  the  smaller  and  more  newly  founded  colleges 
there  are  usually  certain  fraternities  which  stand  for 
nothing  in  particular,  and  admit  almost  any  one  they 
can  secure  to  membership.* 

*  In  order  to  make  our  meaning  clearer,  we  will  include  ex- 
tracts from  the  reports  of  correspondents  in  different  colleges: 

Adelhert  College,  Cleveland. — "  The  best  fraternities  have  a  dis- 
tinct social  ideal.  The  better  the  chapter  here,  the  more  unique 
and  distinct  is  its  characteristics.  The  poorer  chapters  seem  to  be 
mere  collections  of  rag  ends  and  left-overs.  One  fraternity  stands 
for  social  prestige,  one  for  athletic  prestige  and  the  character  of 
its  men ;  a  third  may  be  said  to  stand  for  scholarship." 

Beloit  College,  Wisconsin. — "  The  fraternities  do  not  represent 
distinct  social  ideals."  , 

University  of  Nebraska,  Lincoln. — "  The  fraternities  do  stand 
for  different  ideals.  Some  aim  for  social  prestige,  some  for  ath- 
letic superiority,  some  for  scholarship,  and  one  or  two  at  a  combi- 
nation of  these — that  is,  at  a  representation  of  the  entire  life  of  the 
university. 

Vanderhilt  University.  — ''The  fraternities  stand  for  difi'erent 


STUDENT  SOCIETIES  IN  MODERN  PERIOD.     219 

In  addition  to  the  general  college  fraternities  (men's), 
twenty-nine  in  number,  which  we  have  described,  the 
vitality  of  the  idea  is  seen  in  the  rise  of  women's  frater- 
nities, sometimes  known  as  sororities,  professional  fra- 
ternities, honorary  fraternities,  and  secondary  school 
fraternities.  There  are  also  a  large  number  of  local  so- 
cieties of  this  type,  of  which  Baird  enumerates  twenty- 
eight  for  men  and  fourteen  for  women.*  The  most 
noteworthy  of  these,  such  as  the  I.  K.  A.  Society  at 
Trinity  College,  the  Alpha  Sigma  Phi  at  Xorwich  Uni- 
versity, and  the  Phi  Xu  Theta  at  Wesleyan,  have  long 
histories  and  were  the  creations  of  the  same  movement 
which  produced  the  general  fraternities.  Some  of  the 
others  are  disgruntled  chapters  of  general  fraternities 
which  have  either  seceded  or  been  expelled;  a  third 
class  consists  of  chapters  which  have  been  recently 
formed  for  the  purpose  of  securing  admission  to  some 
general  fraternity.  If  they  fail  in  their  object,  they 
almost  invariably  disappear,  as  the  conditions  of  mod- 
ern college  life  make  the  formation  of  new  societies 
increasingly  difficult.  As  a  group  the  local  fraterni- 
ties are  comparatively  unimportant,  numbering  in  1898 
5,389  members,  to  the  142,688  of  the  general  frater- 
nities. 


ideals  to  a  certain  extent,  several  fraternities  emphasize  social 
prestige,  others  college  honours,  including  places  on  the  college  L 
team  or  musical  clubs.     Scholarship  alone  could  secure  entrance    ^ 
to  no  fraternity,  although  some  chapters  would  be  more  influenced 
by  it  than  others." 

At  a  prominent  Western  university  a  story  is  told  which  illus- 
trates the  difference  between  fraternity  standards.     One  of  the 
fraternities  having  expelled  a  member  for  drunkenness,  another      ^ 
Greek-letter  man  observed  that  his  society  would  expel  a  man  who 
was  not  drunk  periodically. 

*  Baird.  W.  R.     American  College  Fraternities,  fifth  edition, 
pp.  280,  298. 


lY 


220  STUDENT  LIFE  AND  CUSTOMS. 

Women's  fraternities  are  almost  entirely  the  product 
of  the  present  period,  for,  although  the  Pi  Beta  Phi  was 
organized  in  1867,  it  was  not  a  purely  academic  society 
for  some  time  afterward.  Kappa  Alpha  Theta  and 
Kappa  Kappa  Gamma  were  founded  in  1870,  and  Delta 
Gamma  in  1872.  ^Women's  fraternities  originated  in 
the  coeducational  colleges  of  the  West  and  South,  and 
have  never  gained  a  strong  foothold  in  the  women's 
colleges  of  the  East,  which  usually  prefer  some  form  of 
literary  or  scientific  society.  In  colleges  where  wom- 
en's fraternities  exist,  they  enroll  a  smaller  proportion  of 
their  constituency  than  do  similar  societies  among  men. 
They  are  close  copies  of  men's  fraternities,  and  are  said 
to  differ  only  in  being  much  more  exclusive.  In  many 
coeducational  colleges  there  is  a  tacit  social  understand- 
ing between  certain  of  the  women's  societies  and  some 
few  of  the  men's  fraternities. 

Professional  fraternities  have  been  founded  for  stu- 
dents in  law,  medicine,  music,  scientific  agriculture,  en- 
gineering, commerce,  and  the  Spanish  language.  The 
majority  of  these  societies  are  small  and  unimportant, 
being  confined  to  four  or  five  colleges,  although  one  or 
two  are  the  regular  fraternities  for  engineering  and  agri- 
cultural schools  of  a  high  grade.  The  one  exception  to 
the  generalization  regarding  size  is  the  Phi  Delta  Phi, 
a  legal  fraternity  founded  in  the  law  school  of  the  Uni- 
versity of  Michigan  in  1869.  It  lacks  many  of  the 
common  characteristics  of  a  fraternity;  its  chapters  are 
named  for  great  lawyers,  and  the  use  of  the  ritual  is  not 
mandatory.  Its  motto,  grip,  and  passw^ord  are  not 
communicated  to  outsiders;  otherwise  the  organization 
is  open.  The  Phi  Delta  Phi  avoids  antagonism  with  all 
existing  literary  societies  and  general  fraternities,  draw- 
ing its  members  impartially  from  all  of  them.  The 
chapters  are  expected  to-  draw  up  a  schedule  of  work, 
supplementing  the  regular  lectures  of  the  law  school. 


STUDENT  SOCIETIES  IX  MODERN  PERIOD.     221 

After  graduation  the  members  make  use  of  their  con- 
nection with  the  order  to  obtain  an  interchange  of  busi- 
ness and  information.  Its  members  are  said  to  be 
linown  by  their  high  legal  accomplishments. 

The  honorary  fraternities,  six  in  number — the  Phi 
Beta  Kappa,  the  Pi  Beta  Xu,  Sigma  Xi,  Lambda  Sig- 
ma eta,  Tau  Beta  Pi,  and  Alpha  Theta  Phi — aim  only  to 
designate  a  certain  aristocracy  of  talent.  The  oldest 
and  most  important  of  the  group,  the  Phi  Beta  Kappa, 
did  not  become  purely  honorary  until  the  antimasonic 
movement  in  the  thirties.*  For  many  years  after  this 
the  chapters  met  but  once  a  year,  to  listen  to  an  oration 
and  poem,  and  to  elect  members  for  the  ensuing  year. 
The  Phi  Beta  Kappa  key  became  and  has  remained  the 
symbol  of  high  scholarship  in  the  colleges  where  the 
society  exists.  In  1881  the  Harvard  chapter  initiated  a 
movement  for  the  reconstruction  of  the  order,  which  re- 
sulted in  the  adoption  of  a  new  constitution  in  1882. 
The  order  is  now  organized  on  a  modern  basis.  In 
1898  the  Phi  Beta  Kappa  numbered  forty  chapters,  with 
a  membership  of  19,334.  The  five  remaining  honorary 
societies  follow  closely  the  Phi  Beta  Kappa  in  their 
usages,  and  have  only  a  local  importance  and  small 
membership. 

The  academic  or  secondary  school  fraternities  are 
treated  in  Chapter  A^II,  which  deals  with  student  organi- 
zations of  the  secondary  school  and  may  be  passed  by  in 
this  connection. 

In  a  previous  chapter  we  have  discussed  the  strug- 
gles which  ensued  from  the  early  foundation  of  the  fra- 
ternities to  the  beginning  of  the  modern  period.  The 
task  remains  of  bringing  the  discussion  down  to  date. 
In  general,  it  may  be  said  that,  while  the  antagonism 
between  the  fraternities  and  their  opponents  still  ex- 

*  See  Chapter  III  for  early  history  of  the  Phi  Beta  Kappa. 


222  STUDENT  LIFE  AND  CUSTOMS. 

ists,  much  of  the  bitterness  and  clamour  has  disap- 
peared in  the  last  twenty  years.  Of  late,  college  au- 
thorities have  been  more  cautious  in  antagonizing  the 
societies;  the  firmly  established  position  of  the  frater- 
nities has  cooled  the  ardour  of  .their  adversaries.  A  lew- 
struggles  of  importance  between  faculties  and  banded 
alliances  of  Greek-letter  men  remain  to  be  noticed. 

One  of  the  most  interesting  tests  of  strength  took* 
place  in  1881  at  Purdue  University,  an  industrial  college 
founded  by  the  State  of  Indiana.  The  faculty  for  a 
time  permitted  the  organization  of  fraternities,  but, 
having  satisfied  themselves  that  the  societies  were  en- 
deavouring to  change  the  course  of  the  college,  they 
attempted  to  crush  the  chapters  by  compelling  fresh- 
men to  sign  an  anti-fraternity  clause.  The  guardian  of 
a  student  who  was  refused  admission  on  this 'ground 
carried  the  case  to  the  Supreme  Court  of  the  State  and 
obtained  a  judgment  against  the  college  administf-ation. 
The  anti-fraternity  president  of  the  college  resigned  and 
was  succeeded  by  an  enthusiastic  supporter  of  the 
Greek-letter  cause.  , 

A  similar  conflict  between  the  professors  and  fra- 
ternities of  the  University  of  California,  two  years 
earlier,  resulted  in  a  defeat  of  the  faculty,  although  they 
were  strongly  supported  by  a  majority  of  the  students. 
For  several  years  an  intense  hatred  separated  the  two 
factions^-g^ong  the  students.  Fraternity  members  on 
two  occasions  endeavoured  to  assault  non-fraternity 
men  who  had  atiyacked  their  characters  in  the  college 
papers.  The  non-fraternity  men  published  a  pamphlet 
tracing  the  history  of  each  one  of  the  societies  then  in 
existence  at  the  university,  and  charging. Ihe  fraternity 
element  with  dissipation, -negligence  of  university  work, 
cheating  in  examinations,  and  the  publication  of  ob- 
scene literature.  From  an  examination  of  the  college 
records  the  editors  of  the  pamphlet  claimed  to  prove 


STUDENT  SOCIETIES  IN  MODERN  PERIOD.'^ 

that  during  ten  years  42.28  per  cent  of  the  entire  mem- 
bership of  the  fraternities  had  been  expelled^  against 
18  per  cent  of  the  non-fraternity  men.*  The  decisions 
in  the  California  and  Purdue  cases  made  the  position 
of  the  fraternities  secure  in  State  institutions,  but  the 
power  of  the  faculty  remained  unchecked  in  private 
colleges." 

*  At  Vanderbilt  University  the  faculty  endeavoured 
to  protect  the  literary  societies  from  what  it  considered 
the  inroads  of  the  fraternities.  At  first,  secret  societies 
were  absolutely  forbidden,  but  they  came  and  remained 
in  spite  of  prohibition.  In  1879  indirect  recognition 
was  extended  to  the  fraternities  by  a  rule  which  de- 
barred their  members  from  competing  for  the  honours 
of  the  university,  including  the  medals  in  oratory,  the 
candidates  for  which  were  chosen  by  the  literary  so- 
cieties. Under  this  regime  the  literary  societies  be- 
came the  arena  for  fraternity  cliques. and  combinations. 
Four  years  later  the  faculty  /changed  its  tactics  and 
passed  a  rule  to  the  effect  that  the  literary  societies  • 
should  certify  that  the  speakers  elected  to  the  contests 
were  eligible.  The  attempt  to  saddle  the  societies  with 
the  enforcement  of  the  law  failed  miserably.  One  so- 
ciety flatly  refused,  and  the  other  dodged  the  issue. 
Finally,  elections  for  honours  were  transferred  to  the 
faculty  and  fraternities  permitted  to  exist,  f 

*  The  charges,  were  not  vague  and  general',  but  given  with  cir- 
cumstantial detail.  This  pamphlet  is  one  cii  the  most  interesting 
documents  in  American  student  literature.  It  is  bv  no  means  a 
mere  hysterical  protest,  \^t  is  written  with  considerable  force  and 
cleverness.  The  title  runs  as  follows : '"  An  Account  of  the  Greek- 
Letter  Fraternities  of  the  University  of  California,  republished, 
corrected,  and  brought  down  to  date  from  the  Files  of  the  Occi- 
dent Newspaper  for  the  Year  ending  June  1,  1883.  Berkeley, 
1883." 

t  Merriam,  L.  S.    Higher  Education  in  Tennessee,  p.  167. 


222  STUDENT  LIFE  AND  CUSTOMS. 

Numerous  colleges  still  prohibit  tlie  organization  of 
fraternities,  but,  with  the  exception  of  Princeton,  they 
are  small  denominational  institutions  and  are  not  re- 
garded by  the  fraternities  as  suitable  locations  for  chap- 
ters. Notwithstanding  the  fact  that  none  of  the  best 
fraternities  care  to  gain  a  foothold  in  such  places,  the 
majority  of  the  students  are  often  frequently  leagued  to- 
gether in  secret  orders,  usually  quite  temporary,  for  no 
better  reason  apparently  than  to  be  in  opposition  to  the 
college  authorities.  In  colleges  of  this  class  the  liter- 
ary societies  are  still  strong  and  possess  an  esprit  de 
corps  which  reminds  one  in  many  ways  of  the  fraternity. 
With  the  increasing  wealth  of  the  students,  fraternities 
will  in  time  find  their  way  into  the  majority  of  these 
institutions.  -. 

The  antagonism  betweeiis^ie  Greeks  and  barbarians, 
or  non-fraternity  student*,  has>antinued  a  much  more 
constant  factor  in  the  legal  opposition  of  college  facul- 
ties. The  strength  of  the  two  parties  varies  widely 
with  different  sections  of  the  country  and  different 
classes  of  institutions.  In  general,  the  fraternities 
dominate  the  smaller  colleges,  particularly  those  of  New 
England  and  the  Middle  States,  although  an  occasional 
revolt  on  the  part  of  the  non-fraternity  men  sometimes 
occurs.*  The  "  barbarians  "  are  strongest  at  the  large 
colleges,  particularly  the  State  universities  of  the  West, 
which  have  always  been  the  seat  of  a  strong  anti-frater- 
nity feeling.  The  issue  occasionally  comes  to  the  surface 
in  the  Harvard  class-day  elections.!  In  the  senior  elec- 
tions at  Yale,  class  of  1899,  the  entire  non-society  ticket 
was  elected. 

*  Start,  A.  B.  History  of  Tufts  College,  p.  68,  describes  such 
a  revolt. 

•)•  Harvard  Graduate  Magazine,  vol.  iii.  p.  209  ;  also  Thayer,  W. 
R.  Shall  we  have  a  University  Club?  Harvard  Graduate  Maga- 
zine, vol.  iii,  p.  471. 


STUDENT  SOCIETIES  IN   MODERN   PERIOD.     ^ 

In  one  of  the  large  AYestern  universities,  where  the 
writer  happened  to  be  acquainted  with  the  conditions 
of  college  life,  both  parties  were  organized  in  a  manner 
very  similar  to  that  of  outside  politics.  The  fraterni- 
ties formed  an  alliance,  and  divided  the  offices  in  pro- 
portion to  their  strength  and  influence.  The  non-fra- 
ternity men  were  still  more  systematically  arrayed. 
Their  forces  were  divided  and  subdivided  for  campaign 
purposes;  each  leader  had  a  territory  assigned  him, 
v/here  he  was  held  accountable  for  the  vote.  In  class 
and  general  elections  (for  student-body  officials)  there 
were  no  speeches  or  outward  signs  of  agitation,  but  both 
sides  instituted  a  thorough  canvass,  and  brought  their 
entire  voting  strength  to  the  polls.  In  general  elec- 
tions, the  greater  numbers  of  the  non-fraternity  men 
usually  carried  the  day;  in  smaller  elections  their 
forces  were  less  manageable,  they  were  frequently  be- 
trayed by  their  leaders,  and  were  in  consequence  at  a 
great  disadvantage  in  diplomacy  and  in  the  control  of 
small  boards  or  committees.  Eealizing  this  fact,  they 
abolished  all  such  bodies  and  threw  all  the  important 
offices  open  to  direct  popular  election.  To  prevent  chi- 
caner}^, they  endeavoured  to  secure  as  much  publicity 
as  possible  in  the  management  of  public  affairs.  The  - 
great  lack  of  the  non-fraternity  party  was  competent 
leaders;  the  fraternities  always  endeavoured  to  pick  off 
their  best  men.  The  division  of  the  students  into  two 
great  parties,  while  provocative  of  much  wrangling  and 
some  narrowness,  insures  a  more  competent  administra- 
tion than  could  otherwise  be  secured,  because  it  means  a 
certain  measure  of  responsibility.  Student  politics  in 
such  an  institution  is  a  faithful  copy  of  outside  condi- 
tions, in  many  ways  neither  better  nor  worse.  A  certain 
po  of  undergraduates  will  employ  machine  methods 
ff  ballot  boxes  as  freely  as  the  most  veteran  poli- 
another  type  of  men  work  for  a  clean  and  hon- 
15 


22j>(j  STUDENT  LIFE  AND  CUSTOMS. 

est  administration;  the  great  majority  are  indifferent, 
except  in  cases  of  closely  contested  elections.* 

The  continuous  existence  of  organized  parties  al- 
most equally  strong  and  pitted  against  each  other  iij 
each  successive  election,  as  described  in  the  last  para- 
graph, is  a  somewhat  exceptional  phenomenon  which 
exists  only  in  large  Western  universities  like  Michigan, 
Wisconsin,  Indiana,  and  Leland  Stanford.  In  most  col- 
leges an  anti-fraternity  movement  is  a  somewhat  spas- 
modic affair,  intense  and  unreasonable  while  it  lasts,  but 
soon  over,  after  which  the  college. settles  down  to  its 
normal  condition.  Strange  to  relate,  these  movements 
frequently  result  in  the  formation  of  new  fraternities 
by  the  most  vigorous  protesters. 

The  American  f  fraternity  system  has  attained  to 
a  strength  and  stability  which  have  rarely  characterized 
student  associations.  The  general  fraternities  alone 
(men's)  have  a  membership  of  one  hundred  and  thirty 
thousand  members.  No  statistics  have  been  gathered 
in  regard  to  their  property,  but  a  rough  estimate  places 
its  valuation  in  the  neighbourhood  of  five  million 
dollars.  The  prominent  fraternities  issue  an  entire 
series  of  publications,  including  extensive  catalogues 

*  The  participation  of  fraternities  in  college  politics  is  some- 
times denied.  We  append  the  following  representative  testimony 
from  our  correspondents : 

Beloit. — "  Fraternities  control  elections  for  athletic  positions." 

Lafayette. — "  Fraternities  enter  politics  and  control  class  elec- 
tions to  a  limited  extent  by  first  combining  among  themselves." 

Nebraska. — "  Sometimes  the  fraternities  enter  politics,  at  other 
times  they  unite  with  the  literary  societies." 

Vanderhilt. — "  Fraternities  as  such  do  not  enter  college  politics, 
although  they  sometimes  influence  votes  in  the  literary  societies." 

f  The  terra  American  here  must  not  be  limited  to  the  United 
States,  as  important-  chapters  have  been  organized  in  the  Canadian 
lUiiversities. 


STUDENT  SOCIETIES  IN  MODERN  PERIJ>.    229 

and  expensive  quarterly  'magazines,  and  hold  conv\  a 
tions,  with  hundreds  of  delegates  from  all  sections  of  the 
Union. 

In  a  majority  of  the  colleges  of  the  country  the  fra- 
^fe^nities  aim  to  select  the  ablest,  most  socially  gifted, 
and  wealthiest  men.  Of  their  social  pre-eminence 
there  can  be  no  question;  in  all  the  colleges  from  which 
we  have  received  returns  the  fraternity  members  are 
the  society  leaders.  "  From  the  list  of  alumni  published,/^ 
it  would  seem  that  a  majority  of  the  graduates  of  Ameri- 
can colleges  in  the  last  forty  years  who  have  become 
famous  were  in  their  student  days  members  of  fra- 
ternities. 

We  have  no  means  of  accurately  determining  the 
•percentage  of  undergraduates  who  belong  to  fraterni- 
ties in  the  different  colleges  of  the  country.  The  fol- 
lowing estimates  made  by  recent  graduates  of  the  col- 
leges in  question  will  give  some  idea  of  the  proportion. 
From  Adelbert  College  it  is  reported  that  40  per  cent 
of  the  men  belong  to  fraternities,  Beloit  SSj  per  cent, 
Lafayette  50  per  cent,  Yanderbilt  50  per  cent,  Leland 
Stanford  25  per  cent,  and  Nebraska  20  per  cent;  in 
a  few  of  the  New  England  colleges  considerably  more 
than  one  half  of  the  undergraduates.  From  the  char- 
acter of  the  fraternity  principle,  all  the  students  of  a 
<;ollege  .could  not  be  included  under  its  operation.  To 
state  the  difficulty  in  Baird's  language:  "Experience 
has  shown  that  if  the  bulk  of  the  students  in  any  college  v 
'  belong  to  the  fraternities,  fraternity  life  in  that  college  i, 
is  apt  to  be  dull  and  the  chapters  weak;  and  in  conse- 
quence an  election  to  a  fraternity  is  taken  as  a  matter 
of  course  and  a  little-prized  honour.^^  * 

The  general  scheme  of  organization  and  manage- 

*  Baird,  W.  R.     American  College  Fraternities,  fourth  edi- 
tion, p.  16. 


STUDENT  LIFE  AND   CUSTOMS. 

^iit  as  well  as  the  type  of  symbolism  are  common  to  all 
Aie  fraternities,  and  yet  each  preserved  its  separate  and 
independent  character,  all  alliances  having  been  thus 
far  of  a  local  and  temporary  character.  In  1883  an  at- 
tempt was  made  to  bring  about  a  loose  form  of  federa- 
tion under  the  name  of  a  Pan-Hellenic  Council.  A 
college  fraternities  congress  was  held  by  representatives 
from  several  fraternities  in  Chicago  during  the  World's 
Fair  (1893).  A  similar  meeting  took  place  at  Atlanta 
some  time  afterward.  Thus  far  the  agitation  for  fed- 
eration has  only  resulted  in  a  yearly  meeting  known  as 
the  Pan-Hellenic  Banquet,  where  topics  of  common  in- 
terest to  all  fraternity  men  have  been  discussed.  Pan- 
Hellenic  clubs  composed  of  fraternity  graduates  have 
been  formed  in  a  number  of  large  cities.* 

*  We  have  treated  the  causes  underlying  the  success  of  the 
fraternity  idea  only  in  the  most  general  way.  Below  we  append 
quotations  from  two  correspondents,  one  a  Greek  and  the  other  a 
non -fraternity  man,  bearing  on  this  important  point : 

Fraternity  Opinion. — "  The  chief  fascination  seems  to  me  to  be 
due  to  the  well-known  adolescent  curiosity  and  unrest.  Fraterni- 
ties are  to  college  men  types  of  adult  societies,  such  as  Masons, 
Odd-Fellows,  etc.,  and  they  look  upon  them  as  stepping  stones  from 
youthful  to  adult  organizations.  Anything  with  an  element  of 
secrecy  appeals  to  adolescents.  To  many,  no  doubt,  the  desire  for 
the  support  of  a  crowd  of  influential  fellows  in  political  and  social 
affairs  is  the  chief  motive  which  impels  them  to  fraternity  mem- 
bership. To  others  the  desire  to  be  in  it  with  the  popular  'set,' 
and  to  avoid  being  referred  to  as  '  non-frat.'  appeals  most  strongly. 
Again,  the  means  for  furnishing  pleasant  pastimes,  such  as  bil- 
liard and  pool  tables,  cards,  etc.,  which  fraternity  rooms  afford, 
together  with  the  convenience  of  a  pleasant  loafing  place,  are 
strong  allurements." 

Non-fraternity  Opinion. — "The  chief  motives  [in  joining  fra- 
ternities] seem  to  be  two — the  social  impulse  toward  good  fellow- 
ship and  the  desire  'to  have  a  time'  and  'be  out  with  the  boys'; 
and  secondly,  the  instinct  to  be  a  power,  which  leads  men  to  join 


STUDENT  SOCIETIES  IN  xMODERN  PERIOD.    229 

Some  observers  have  predicted  for  the  fraternity  a 
future  similar  to  the  English  college,  and  have  advo- 
cated the  location  of  permanent  graduate  tutors  in  the 
chapter  houses.  One  fraternity  is  said  to  have  even 
made  a  move  in  this  direction.  The  surface  objec- 
tions to  a  widespread  adoption  of  such  a  plan  are  nu- 
merous. Many  chapters  could  not  bear  the  expense;  to 
others  it  would  seem  like  the  invasion  of  "  shop  "  on 
the  privileged  field  of  kisure.  Such  a  plan  does  not 
make  for  specialization,  which  is  now  the  watchword  of 
superior  education  in  this  country.  This  scheme  is 
largely  bound  up  with  the  future  of  the  small  college, 
because  it  is  only  in  the  small  college  that  such  a  supple- 
ment to  the  curriculum  is  needed,  and  nowhere  else  are 
the  fraternities  sufficiently  strong  to  inaugurate  such 
an  undertaking.  Present  tendencies  point  to  the  ex- 
pansion of  one  class  of  colleges  into  universities,  and 
the  absorption  of  the  weaker  by  the  secondary  schools. 
If  such  a  revolution  comes  to  pass  in  superior  education, 
it  will  necessarily  cut  the  ground  from  under  the  fra- 
ternity tutor  plan. 

because  they  hope  to  gain  a  '  poHtical  pull,'  and  want  'to  have  a 
gang  that  will  be  your  gang.' " 

A  third  correspondent  puts  the  case  in  a  somewhat  different 
form : 

"  The  source  of  the  fascination  which  the  fraternity  idea  exer- 
cises is  found  in  the  desire  for  mutual  companionship  on  the  part 
of  young  men  having  similar  ideals.  Young  men  of  the  college 
age  are  apt  to  group  themselves  together,  according  to  their  likes, 
dislikes,  ambitions,  and  customs.  They  feel  a  longing  for  an  in- 
fluence like  that  of  the  home  which  they  have  left.  They  recog- 
nise that  there  is  a  certain  strength  in  organization,  and  a  mutual 
aid  and  benefit  in  close  companionship  with  twenty  of  their  fel- 
lows." 


230  STUDENT  LIFE  AND  CUSTOMS. 

§  4.  Athletic  Organizations  in  the  Modern  Period. 

Athletic  sports  with  their  numerous  organizations 
and  contests  have  been  the  most  prominent  feature  in 
American  student  life  during  the  past  twenty-five  years. 
The  greater  portion  of  the  public  know  a  college  almost 
exclusively  through  its  athletic  records,  for  three  fourths 
of  the  news  items  concerning  student  life  deal  with 
sport.  In  the  comic  journals  the  typical  college  man 
is  the  football  player  with  his  long  hair  and  limp. 
While  within  academic  precincts  athletics  is  only  one 
of  numerous  interests,  and  many  students  have  only  the 
most  superficial  connection  with  the  games,  still,  of  all 
undergraduate  concerns,  intercollegiate  contests  play 
by  far  the  largest  part  in  the  daily  life  and  talk.  The 
successful  captain  of  the  eleven  or  the  crew  usually 
stands  forth  the  most  popular  and  influential  man  of 
his  class  and  the  ideal  of  the  younger  students.  In 
writing  the  history  of  the  modern  athletic  movement 
we  shall  first  indicate  the  relative  position  and  popular- 
ity of  the  various  games,  and  then  pass  on  to  a  discus- 
sion of  the  problems  arising  from  athleticism. 

In  1870  boating  was  the  only  sport  which  had 
gained  for  itself  a  well-recognised  status.  In  that  year 
the  last  of  the  first  series  of  intercollegiate  contests  be- 
tween Yale  and  Harvard  had  been  won  by  the  latter, 
which  opened  the  way  a  year  later  to  the  formation  of 
the  Eowing  Association  of  American  Colleges,  which 
included  all  the  colleges  of  importance  in  New  England, 
with  two  or  three  outside  institutions  in  New  Jersey  and 
New  York.  Six  races  took  place  under  the  auspices  of 
the  association,  the  first  three  on  the  Connecticut 
Eiver  at  Springfield,  the  remaining  three  at  Saratoga 
Lake,  New  York.  Membership  in  the  association  shifted 
from  year  to  year;  one  year  seventeen  colleges  were 
represented  by  crews,  the  next  there  were  only  seven 


STUDENT  SOCIETIES  IX  MODERN   PERIOD.    231 

contestants.  The  old  antagonism  between  Harvard 
and  Yale  dominated  the  association,  the  minor  colleges 
taking  sides  with  either  one  or  the  other.  This  rivalry, 
together  with  the  difficulty  of  managing  and  judging 
so  many  crews  on  the  same  course,  led  to  much  doubtful 
diplomacy  and  frequent  controversies.  Many  of  the 
smaller  colleges  maintained  crews  with  great  difficulty 
and  expense,  and,  as  soon  as  the  novelty  wore  away,  neg- 
lected to  send  representatives.  The  final  stroke  to  the 
association  was  given  in  1876,  when  Harvard  and  Yale 
withdrew.*  Since  1876  no  attempt  has  been  made  to 
revive  boating  on  a  large  scale.  Most  of  the  colleges  of 
the  country  are  unfavourably  located  for  participation 
in  the  sport,  while  the  expense  and  difficulty  of  prepara- 
tion place  it  beyond  the  reach  of  many  of  the  small 
colleges.  The  Harvard- Yale  races  have  continued  from 
1876  to  the  present,  and  are  considered  athletic  events 
of  the  first  magnitude,  second  only  in  interest  to  the 
great  football  games  in  the  autumn.  Cornell,  Pennsyl- 
vania, the  national  Xaval  Academy  at  Annapolis,  and 
more  recently  Wisconsin,  have  cultivated  boating  with 
great  care  and  considerable  success.  Of  all  the  forms 
of  intercollegiate  athletic  competition  it  is  the  least  ex- 
tended and  is  practically  confined  to  six  or  seven  insti- 
tutions of  the  first  rank  in  the  Eastern  States,  and  is 
without  a  following  in  the  West  and  South. 

Baseball,  the  next  sport  to  be  extensively  developed, 
is  the  most  vddespread  form  of  athletic  competition;  in 
small  and  obscure  colleges  it  is  the  only  game  played. 
Its  universal  diffusion  among  all  classes  of  people,  and 

*  The  following  colleges  won  in  the  years  designated :  Massa- 
chusetts Agricultural,  1871 ;  Amherst,  1872 ;  Yale,  1873  ;  Colum- 
bia, 1874;  Cornell,  1875;  Cornell,  1876.  An  effort  was  made  to 
continue  the  association  by  Brown,  Dartmouth,  Bowdoin,  and 
Trinity,  bat  without  success.  For  a  full  account  of  the  entire 
episode  see  Yale  Book. 


232  STUDENT  LIFE  AND  CUSTOMS. 

the  ease  with  which  match  games  can  be  prepared  for, 
are  responsible  for  its  popularity  among  college  stu- 
dents. From  the  standpoint  of  the  spectators  it  is 
greatly  inferior  to  football,  lacking  the  mass  movements 
and  general  attitude  of  conflict  which  give  zest  to  the 
latter.  The  fact  that  professional  baseball  in  the  cities 
has  become  a  business  has  worked  injury  to  the  game  as 
an  amateur  sport.  Nearly  every  college  in  the  country 
has  its  nine,  the  achievements  of  which  are  watched 
with  considerable  interest  in  the  spring  of  the  year,  but 
in  most  cases  without  that  extreme  absorption  which 
characterizes  football  enthusiasm.  It  is  worthy  of  note 
that  some  of  the  small  colleges,  particularly  Catholic 
colleges  with  an  Irish  clientele^  are  able  to  compete  in 
this  sport  on  terms  of  equality  with  larger  institutions. 
Football  is  now  the  college  sport  par  excellence  of 
the  country.  Its  popularity  as  an  organized  game  in 
the  colleges  dates  only  from  1880,  and  for  a  number  of 
years  its  votaries  were  largely  confined  to  the  Eastern 
States.  Since  1890  the  colleges  of  all  sections  of  the 
country  have  adopted  it,  and  it  has  also  been  diffused 
downward  to  the  academies  and  high  schools;  even  in 
many  sections  to  the  elementary  schools.  The  small 
boys  on  the  streets,  who  fifteen  years  ago  played  only 
baseball,  now  devote  much  more  time  to  its  rival,  al- 
though football  is  not  so  well  adapted  to  their  physique 
and  playing  grounds.  The  colleges  of  each  State  and 
section  of  country  have  their  local  contests,  which  are 
considered  of  momentous  importance.  The  games  be- 
tween certain  larger  institutions  of  the  first  rank  are 
regarded  as  of  national  importance,  and  their  details  are 
telegraphed  from  one  end  of  the  country  to  the  other. 
The  most  important  group  of  institutions  is  composed 
of  the  five  great  universities  of  the  East — Harvard, 
Yale,  Princeton,  Pennsylvania,  and  Cornell.  In  the 
middle  West,  Michigan,  Wisconsin,  Minnesota,  North- 


STUDENT  SOCIETIES  IN  MODERN  PERIOD.    233 

western,  and  Chicago  form  a  second  group  of  inferior 
importance.  The  games  between  Virginia  and  Yander- 
bilt  in  the  South,  Missouri  and  Kansas  in  the  far  West, 
California  and  Leland  Stanford  on  the  Pacific  coast, 
stand  midway  in  importance  between  the  contests  of 
widespread  interests  and  those  of  simple  local  impor- 
tance. 

Football  owes  its  popularity  to  the  element  of  phys- 
ical combat  which  plays  so  important  a  part  in  the 
game.  In  this  it  appeals  to  one  of  the  strongest  human 
instincts,  an  instinct  which  under  different  conditions 
has  insured  the  success  of  gladiatorial  combats,  bull- 
fighting, and  prize  fighting.  Walter  Camp  has  drawn 
an  interesting  comparison  between  football  and  war,* 
pointing  out  that  the  problems  in  strategy  and  training 
which  confront  the  football  coach  are  practically  iden- 
tical with  those  which  a  general  has  to  overcome.  More 
than  any  other  form  of  athletics,  football  is  confined  to 
the  schools;  it  has  not  yet  become  a  business,  like  bicy- 
cling and  baseball.  The  fact  that  the  games  are  hona 
fide  exhibitions  of  skill  is  not  without  effect  in  establish- 
ing it  in  the  good  will  of  the  public. 

Track  and  field  sports  were  the  last  branches  of  ath- 
letics to  receive  serious  attention.  As  early  as  1872  we 
have  records  of  organized  field  days.f  Until  recently 
this  department  of  athletics  excited  less  interest  than 
football,  baseball,  and  boating.     Xow  in  many  colleges 

*  See  Camp  and  Deland,  Football,  chap.  v.  In  this  book  the 
practical  and  technical  details  of  the  game  are  discussed  with 
force  and  brevity  by  the  best-qualified  man  in  the  country.  The 
growth  of  the  American  game  and  a  comparison  of  it  with  the 
English  and  Canadian  games  is  the  theme  of  a  chapter  of  unusual 
interest. 

+  See  Yale  Book,  vol.  ii.  p.  451;  Princeton  Book.  Felix  E. 
Schelling,  Oiganizations  within  the  University,  in  F.  N.  Thorpe's 
Benjamin  Fr,  iklin  and  the  University  of  Pennsylvania,  pp.  4,  7. 


234  STUDENT  LIFE  AND  CUSTOMS. 

it  ranks  above  baseball,  and  is  looked  upon  with  favour 
by  the  authorities  because  it  enlists  a  much  larger  num- 
ber of  men  in  its  pursuit  than  any  other  sport.  In 
international  contests,  American  athletes  have  distin- 
guished themselves  in  this  line,  whereas  they  have  uni- 
formly failed  in  boating,  the  only  other  form  of  ath- 
letics in  which  international  competition  is  possible. 

These  four  great  departments  of  athletics  form  an 
up23er  hierarchy  of  college  sports;  the  relative  rank  of  a 
college  is  determined  by  its  success  here.  The  public 
athletic  organization  of  the  college  provides  for  train- 
ing only  in  the  four  branches.  They  do  not  by  any 
means  exhaust  the  list  of  athletic  interests,  most  of 
which  are  represented  by  clubs  of  a  more  private  char- 
acter. In  many  colleges  lawn  tennis  numbers  more 
devotees  than  any  of  the  official  sports.*  In  the  larger 
colleges  clubs  are  formed  for  walking,  gunning,  bicy- 
cling, polo,  golf,  cricket,  and  new  and  unusual  forms  of 
sport,  f  The  prosperity  of  these  organizations  fluctuates 
from  year  to  year,  and  depends  much  on  the  position 
which  the  game  in  question  holds  in  the  estimation  of 
the  outside  public.  In  nearly  every  case  they  are  to  be 
commended  because  they  afford  healthful  exercise  with- 
out those  adventitious  rewards  and  excitements  which 
unduly  intensify  the  better  recognised  departments  of 
sport. 

An  enumeration  and  description  of  the  various 
sports,  and  an  account  of  their  organization,  are  by  no 
means  a  history  of  college  athletics.  Such  a  history 
must  include  the  relations  of  athletic  sports  to  the  cul- 


*  While  usually  tlie  tenuis  club  has  no  official  recognition,  this 
is  by  no  means  always  the  case  ;  in  some  colleges  it  is  recognised 
as  a  sport  of  the  first  rank,  and  success  in  it  highly  valued. 

f  Welch  and  Camp.  Yale— Athletics,  chap.  vi.  ''  Outside  ac- 
tivities "  treats  of  miscellaneous  athletic  clubs  at  Yak'. 


STUDEXT  SOCIETIES  IX  MODERX  PERIOD.    235 

ture  and  characteristics  of  the  people,  and  is  a  more  dif- 
ficult task.  The  space  at  our  command  will  not  permit 
the  detailed  consideration  of  the  movement  from  year 
to  year;  so,  without  any  attempt  to  write  annals,  we 
shall  endeavour  to  describe  the  condition  of  athletic 
sports,  particularly  football,  which  existed  in  1890.  The 
unhealthy  features  of  competitive  contests  which  ap- 
peared as  early  as  the  sixties  in  boat-racing  reached  a 
climax  in  football  at  this  period.  The  ideal  of  college 
sport  prevalent  among  undergraduates  and  trainers  was 
to  win  at  any  cost,  and  in  consequence  unworthy  strata- 
gem and  diplomacy  were  resorted  to;  overtraining  was 
common,  extravagance  and  the  employment  of  profes- 
sionals by  no  means  uncommon. 

When  we  come  to  consider  athleticism  more  in  de- 
tail we  see  that  the  outside  public  through  its  represent- 
ative, the  press,  was  in  a  large  degree  responsible  for 
these  extravagances.  To  quote  from  an  able  article 
by  Professor  Taussig,  of  Harvard:  "  During  the  autumn 
a  veritable  craze  seizes  the  community  on  the  subject 
of  football,  and  for  weeks  the  most  important  question 
before  the  public  seems  to  be  whether  eleven  youths 
dressed  in  red,  or  black  and  yellow,  will  prove  them- 
selves more  expert  in  rushing  a  football  than  eleven 
other  youths  dressed  in  blue."  *  The  public  flock  by 
thousands  to  the  matches  and  give  substantial  proof  of 
the  keenness  of  their  interest  by  paying  extravagant 
prices  for  seats. 

The  newspapers  of  the  time  exploited  college  ath- 
letics to  a  degree  previously  unheard  of  and  out  of  all 
proportion  to  the  importance  of  the  sports  in  question. 
For  weeks  before  every  important  game,  the  names  and 
faces  of  all  the  players  appear  in  every  newspaper,  with 

*  Taussig,  F.  W.     A  Professor's  View  of  Athletics,  Harvard 
Graduate  Magazine,  vol.  iii,  pp.  308,  309. 


236  STUDENT  LIFE  AND  CUSTOMS. 

a  detailed  account  of  their  skill,  and  "  after  a  period 
of  training  during  which  the  boys  are  led  to  believe 
that  their  doings  are  of  real  importance  to  the  civilized 
world,  they  come  to  the  game  far  more  overwrought 
mentally  by  the  nervous  strain  than  overworked  phys- 
ically." *  The  writer  has  before  him  a  three-page  news- 
paper account  of  a  great  football  game  in  the  West.  It 
contains  twenty  columns  of  printed  matter  and  seven 
columns  of  illustrations,  including  cartoons  and  pic- 
tures of  the  captains  and  coaches  of  the  two  opposing 
teams.  The  article  consists  of  two  long  accounts  of 
the  game — one  popular  for  the  general  reader,  the  sec- 
ond technical  for  the  football  enthusiast.  Besides 
these  main  features,  there  are  biographies  of  all  the 
players,  the  opinions  of  the  captains,  coaches,  and  the 
presidents  of  the  two  universities  on  the  outcome  of 
the  struggle.  In  a  personal  note  the  emotions  of  the 
gray-haired  father  of  one  of  the  players  are  described 
in  detail.  Such  a  cheap  notoriety  tends  to  place  the 
football  player  on  a  level  with  the  prize-fighting  and 
bicycle-riding  profession.! 

The  result  of  the  notoriety  and  fever  of  expectation 
are  seen  (1)  in  the  recruiting  of  men,  (2)  the  extravagant 
outlays  of  money,  (3)  the  overtraining  of  teams,  and  (4) 
the  fierceness  and  intensity  of  the  contests.     The  prob- 

*  Hemenway,  Augustus.  Important  Suggestions  in  Athletics, 
Harvard  Graduate  Magazine,  vol.  vi,  p.  192. 

f  Emmons,  in  the  Harvard  Graduate  Magazine,  vol.  iii,  pp.  318, 
219,  has  described  the  effect  of  newspaper  notoriety  on  the  rising 
athletes  of  the  secondary  school :  "  A  schoolboy  finds  his  photo- 
graph and  a  sketch  of  his  life  put  before  the  public,  and  he  is 
described  as  a  future  star.  The  consequence  is  that  the  first  few 
weeks,  which  ought  to  be  spent  developing  him  into  a  player,  are 
spent  in  reducing,  what  is  the  natural  result  of  his  publicity,  'a 
swelled  head.' "  This  remark  applies  with  equal  force  to  college 
athletes  who  are  successful  in  the  early  years  of  their  course. 


STUDENT  SOCIETIES  IN  MODERN   PERIOD.     237 

lem  Avhicli  first  confronted  the  captain  long  before  the 
season  began  was  the  task  of  securing  as  many  promis- 
ing athletes  from  the  secondary  schools  as  possible. 
While  the  college  preferences  of  many  men  were  fixed 
either  by  family  tradition  or  academic  considerations, 
a  considerable  number  of  the  best  players  remained 
without  pronounced  ties,  some  of  them  too  poor  to  bear 
the  expense  of  a  college  education  in  the  natural  course 
of  events.  The  most  successful  captain  or  manager 
was  he  who  by  any  means  succeeded  in  attracting  this 
floating  class  of  athletes  to  his  college.  At  times  the 
captain  visited  the  different  preparatory  schools,  and  by 
flattery  and  the  promise  of  social  favour  secured  some, 
while  more  substantial  considerations  were  offered 
others.  Usually  a  direct  money  proposition  was  not 
made  directly,  but  positions  with  nominal  duties  and 
high  salaries  were  thrown  in  the  way  of  the  promising 
full-back  or  tackle.  Eecruiting  was  not  confined  to  the 
fitting  schools,  but  extended  to  the  small  colleges  which 
found  their  best  men  drawn  away  by  the  inducements 
of  the  larger  universities.  Men  of  brawn,  with  no  par- 
ticular scholarly  interest,  were  registered  as  specials  in 
some  one  subject;  this  permitted  them  to  play  on  the 
team.  Athletes  of  value  received  instructorships  from 
the  faculty  which  enabled  them  to  play  for  an  indefinite 
number  of  years. 

The  managers  of  the  large  teams  could  afford  to  be 
extravagant  in  their  outlays  for  players  as  well  as  for 
the  legitimate  expenses,  because  the  public  interest  in 
games  made  it  easy  to  collect  large  sums  of  money, 
sometimes  exceeding  one  hundred  thousand  dollars  in 
a  single  season.  So  strong  was  the  athletic  feeling 
among  the  undergraduates  that  any  manager  against 
whom  the  charge  of  parsimony  could  be  brought  was 
looked  upon  as  little  better  than  a  traitor.  The  regular 
expenses  of  outfitting,  training,  table,  and  coaches,  were 


238  STUDENT  LIFE  AND  CUSTOMS. 

swollen  by  additions  of  every  device  or  indulgence 
which  could  be  thought  of.  Probably  little  of  the 
money  was  directly  embezzled,  but  much  of  it  was  in- 
effectively spent  and  invested  in  schemes  of  a  very 
doubtful  character.  The  appropriation  of  large  sums 
for  needless  indulgences  for  the  team  prevented  the 
proper  expansion  of  athletic  interest  among  the  body  of 
the  undergraduates  by  cutting  off  the  possibility  of 
improved  athletic  facilities.* 

Excessive  physical  training  of  the  players  during 
the  period  previous  to  the  great  games  also  character- 
ized college  athletics  at  this  period.  Four  or  five  hours 
of  the  hardest  physical  exercise,  taken  under  conditions 
of  great  excitement  and  stimulation,  unfitted  the  ath- 
letes for  any  more  than  nominal  participation  in  the 
intellectual  life  of  the  college.  To  quote  President 
Eliot  again:  f  "In  the  three  sports  above  mentioned 
[boating,  baseball,  and  football],  the  training  and  prac- 
tice occupy  too  large  a  portion  of  the  college  year  and 
too  many  hours  a  day.  No  student  can  keep  up  his 
studies  and  also  play  his  full  part  in  these  sports  as 
presently  conducted.     The  faithful  member  of  the  team 

*  For  a  strong  presentation  of  this  point  see  article  by  Walter 
Camp. 

f  Likewise  this  quotation  from  one  of  President  Eliot's  annual 
reports :  "  There  is  something  exquisitely  inappropriate  in  the  ex- 
travagant expenditure  on  athletic  sports  at  such  institutions  as 
Harvard  and  Yale,  institutions  which  have  been  painfully  built 
up  by  the  self-denial,  frugality,  and  public  spirit  of  generations 
that  certainly  did  not  lack  physical  and  moral  courage,  endurance, 
and  toughness,  yet  always  put  the  things  of  the  spirit  above  the 
things  of  sense.  At  these  universities  there  must  be  constant  econ- 
omy and  inadequacy  in  expenditure  for  intellectual  and  spiritual 
objects;  how  repulsive,  then,  must  be  foolish  and  pernicious  ex- 
penditures on  sports ! "  Annual  Report  of  President  and  Treas- 
urer of  Harvard  College,  1892-'93,  p.  I4. 


STUDENT   SOCIETIES   IX   MODERN   PERIOD.     239 

or  crew  may  manage  to  attend  his  lectures  or  other  col- 
lege exercises,  but  has  rarely  any  mind  to  give  to  his 
studies.  His  nervous  energy  is  exhausted  either  by 
severe  bodily  exercise  or  by  the  excitement  of  frequent 
contests.  This  evil,  which  is  comparatively  new,  has 
rapidly  increased  within  recent  years.^^  *  It  is  now  ad- 
mitted that  such  training  overshot  its  own  mark,  and 
placed  a  team  in  the  field  at  Thanksgiving  which  was 
already  stale.  On  the  mental  side,  too,  the  process  was 
carried  too  far,  for  frequently  a  team  entered  the  de- 
cisive game  of  the  year  in  an  over^vrought,  almost 
morbid  state,  from  which  a  return  to  normal  life  was 
difficult. 

The  same  intensity,  involving  an  eager  desire  to 
win  at  any  price,  which  we  have  observed  in  the  pre- 
paratory steps,  characterized  the  contests.  Football, 
a  game  so  rough  as  to  be  dangerous  for  all  except  the 
strongest  and  best-formed  players,  presented  many 
openings  for  unfairness  and  brutality.  It  was  no  un- 
common event  for  a  team  to  enter  a  game  with  the 
set  purpose  of  disabling  a  skilful  player  of  the  opposi- 
tion sufficiently  early  in  the  contest  to  deprive  their 
opponents  of  the  advantage  of  his  capacity.  Viola- 
tions of  the  rules  when  undetected,  tricks,  strata- 
gems, like  clothing  a  team  in  well-oiled  leather  suits, 
were  all  considered  legitimate  methods  of  winning  a 
victory. 

Hitherto  we  have  not  entered  into  a  discussion  of 
the  physical  injuries  consequent  upon  football  when 
played  by  fair  and  honourable  methods;  but  as  this  issue 
has  played  an  important  part  in  the  controversy,  it  can 
not  be  ignored  here.  Walter  Camp  would  have  us  be- 
lieve that  serious  injuries  are  few — a  fact  which,  when 

*  Report  of  the  President  and  Treasurer  of  Harvard,  1892-'93, 
pp.  13,  14. 


240  STUDENT  LIFE  AND  CUSTOMS. 

we  come  to  consider  the  violence  of  the  exercise  and 
the  number  of  opportunities  for  accidents,  is  an  evi- 
dence of  the  strong  physique  which  the  game  bestows 
upon  the  player.  The  degree  of  risk  is  much  overesti- 
mated by  the  newspapers,  and  is  not  greater  than  in 
most  sports  and  pastimes.  The  most  serious  accidents 
are  due  to  the  extreme  youth  of  the  players  and  to  the 
lack  of  competent  coaching.*  Camp  quotes  Mr.  W.  C. 
Church,  in  The  Century,  who,  having  made  a  study  of 
reports  from  sixty-seven  different  colleges  in  thirty- 
seven  States,  claims  that  serious  accidents  are  of  rare  oc- 
currence. Francis  A.  Walker  supported  this  view.  His 
words  are:  "  There  is  much  exaggeration  in  the  public 
mind  regarding  this  matter  [physical  injury],  and  in- 
stances of  permanent  injury  from  athletics  are  fewer 
than  popular  rumour  or  maternal  anxiety  would  make 
them  out  to  be.  The  experience  of  football  players  of 
the  last  fifteen  years  .  .  .  proves  that  this  form  of  ath- 
letic contest  works  little  enduring  injury  among  thor- 
oughly trained  competitors."  f 

Against  these  statements  may  be  placed  the  testi- 
mony of  President  Eliot,  who  says:  "  In  most  manly 
sports  danger  is  reduced  to  a  minimum,  but  in  football 
the  recent  development  of  the  game  has  made  it  more 
and  more  dangerous  without  making  it  more  skilful  or 
interesting.  The  danger  to  life  in  this  country  is  not 
yet  great,  but  the  exposure  to  a  class  of  injuries  which 
decrease  the  serviceableness  of  the  body  throughout 
life  is  decidedly  increased.  Such  injuries  are  sprains, 
wrenches,  congestions  of  the  brain,  breaking  of  bones, 
loss  of  teeth,  and  the  enlargement  and  stiffening  of  the 
joints.     The  objection  to  football  is  not  that  it  in- 

*  Deland  and  Camp.     Football,  pp.  42,  43. 
f  Walker,  F.  A.     College  Athletics,  Harvard  Graduate  Maga- 
zine, vol.  ii,  p.  11. 


STUDENT  SOCIETIES  IN  MODERN  PERIOD.    25. 

volves  some  risk,  but  that  the  risks  are  inordinate  and 
excessive."  * 

If  the  writer  may  be  permitted  to  intrude  his  opin- 
ion among  those  of  experts,  his  judgment  would  be  that 
while  men  of  a  certain  heavy  build  are  able  to  play  foot- 
ball with  impunity  as  regards  accidents  of  a  serious 
nature,  there  are  many  men  now  actually  playing  the 
-ame  in  American  colleges  who  are  taking  large  risks 

injury  because  of  their  light  frames,  the  softness 

their  bones,  and  other  physical  deficiencies.  It  has 
Deen  the  writer's  observation  that  physical  mishaps  of 
the  kind  specified  by  President  Eliot  are  much  more 
common  among  football  players  than  any  other  class 
of  athletes.  The  written  testimony  of  football  players 
or  officials  to  the  contrary  should  be  largely  discounted, 
because,  in  many  cases,  from  an  affection  for  the  game, 
they  minimize  or  conceal  their  hurts  in  order  that  it 
may  stand  well  with  the  public.  The  entire  subject  is 
one  that  should  be  thoroughly  investigated  through  a 
series  of  years  by  a  committee  of  scientific  men,  prefer- 
ably by  the  directors  of  physical  training  in  the  colleges. 
Until  some  such  inquiry  is  undertaken,  we  must  be  con- 
tent with  general  impressions  like  the  above. 

The  evils  of  athleticism  extended  further  than  the 
specific  disadvantages  here  described.  There  can  be 
little  question  but  that  the  exaltation  of  physical  prow- 
ess tended  to  the  disparagement  of  intellectual  disci- 
pline and  acquirements  among  a  large  number  of  col- 
lege men  Avho  were  by  no  means  confined  to  the  strictly 
athletic  class.  In  the  larger  colleges  there  was  little 
in  undergraduate  life  to  make  able  and  earnest  students 
feel  that  intellectual  work  was  really  an  important  part 
of  life.     The  predominance  of  athletic  ideals  strength- 

*  Annual  Reports  of  the  President  and  Treasurer  of  Harvard 
College,  1892-'n3,  p.  15. 
16 


/I2  STUDENT  LIFE  AND  CUSTOMS. 

ened  the  impression  already  strong  among  the  lower 
classes  that  "  colleges  were,  after  all,  institutions  where 
the  children  of  the  well-to-do  pass  three,  four,  or  some- 
times five  years  of  agreeable  leisure,  rescued  from  utt^ 
boredom  by  some  slight  enforcement  of  attentioi?-! 
books,  but  not  involving  serious  exertion,  or  yi 
any  valuable  training  for  the  duties  of  latei- 
The  fact  that  a  small  number  of  this  class  ' 
exist  in  every  college  gave  enough  colour  to  this  view 
to  make  it  a  dangerous  half  truth,  and  to  present  a  mis- 
taken impression  of  the  part  which  the  college  plays  in 
the  education  of  citizens,  f 

*  Taussig,  F.  W.  A  Professor's  View  of  Athletics,  Harvard 
Graduate  Magazine,  vol.  iii,  p.  310. 

f  President  Eliot's  view  of  the  evils  connected  with  football 
may  be  compared  with  the  account  just  given :  "  The  disadvan- 
tages of  college  athletics  are  the  result  of  wanton  exaggeration, 
and  not  necessarily  inherent  in  the  sports  themselves.  When  thus 
exaggerated  they  interfere  with  instead  of  clarifying  and  main- 
taining mental  activity ;  they  convert  the  student  into  a  powerful 
animal,  and  dull  for  the  time  being  his  intellectual  parts ;  they 
present  the  colleges  to  the  public,  educated  and  uneducated,  as 
places  of  mere  physical  sport,  and  not  of  intellectual  training; 
they  make  familiar  to  the  student  a  coarse  publicity  which 
destroys  his  rightful  privacy  while  in  training  for  intellectual 
service,  and  subject  him  to  insolent  and  vulgar  comments  on  his 
personal  qualities ;  they  induce  in  masses  of  spectators  at  inter- 
esting games  an  hysterical  excitement  which  too  many  Americans 
enjoy,  but  which  is  evidence  not  of  physical  strength  and  depth 
of  passion,  but  of  feebleness  and  shallowness ;  they  tend  to  dwarf 
mental  and  moral  qualities  permanently,  and  to  unduly  magnify 
physical  prowess."  Annual  Report  of  the  President  and  Treas- 
urer of  Harvard  College,  1892-'93.  p.  20. 

Another  view  of  the  situation  by  the  historian  of  athletics,  Dr. 
E.  M.  Hartwell,  is  here  inserted  for  the  purposes  of  comparison : 
"The  best  interests  of  rational  and  effectual  physical  training 
have  suffered  much  in  this  country,  and  suffer  still  from  the 
disproportionate  influence  exercised  by  athletic  ideals  upon  the 


STUDENT   SOCIETIES  IN   MODERN  PERIOD.     243 

The  excesses  of  athleticism  provoked  an  unreason- 
ing reaction  on  the  part  of  the  press  and  the  public; 
the  opposition  seemed  anxious  to  rival  the  athletes 
themselves  in  exaggeration  and  extremes.  Football 
was  denounced  as  brutal  and  barbarous;  it  was  com- 
pared with  bullfighting  and  prize  fighting,  and  in  some 
instances  the  Legislatures  were  invoked  to  stop  the 
game.  A  bill  to  this  effect  actually  passed  the  Georgia 
Legislature,  but  was  vetoed  by  the  Governor.  In  Cali- 
fornia and  other  States  similar  attempts  were  made. 
The  religious  papers  were  particularly  strong  in  their 
denunciations,  which  was  more  than  could  be  said  of 

scholastic  and  collegiate  youth ;  and  from  the  undue  prominence 
accorded  athletic  contests  and  contestants  by  an  uncritical  public 
and  an  injudicious  press.  It  is  natural  for  youth  on  the  tiireshold 
of  manhood,  segregated  from  their  elders  under  conditions  pecul- 
iar to  school  and  college  life,  to  be  headstrong  and  self-sufficient. 
They  are  eager  to  distinguish  themselves  in  the  eyes  of  their  fel- 
low-tribesmen by  the  display  of  individual  prowess,  and  for  the 
time  being  are  apt  to  be  animated  by  narrow  and  distorted  views, 
or  to  be  insensitive  or  averse  to  enlightened  or  even  civilized 
opinion.  They  are  strongly  swayed  and  frequently  overmastered 
by  the  spirit  of  rivalry,  which  is  largely  inseparable  from  athletic 
sports,  so  that  at  times  doubtful  and  discredited  methods  seem 
admissible  if  not  admirable,  and  foul  means  fair.  ...  So  sudden 
and  rapid  has  been  the  rise  and  spread  of  athleticism,  that  the 
generation  of  men  who  have  recently  left  the  stage  on  which  our 
athletic  youth  now  figure  so  prominently  and  grotesquely  number 
but  few  who  are  qualified  by  insight  and  experience  to  serve  as  the 
exemplars  and  advisers  of  their  juniors.  .  .  .  Hence  our  athletes 
have  been  left  in  the  main  to  their  own  crude  and  boyish  devices, 
which  tend,  when  unchecked,  toward  extravagance  and  profession- 
alism. The  powerlessness  of  our  educational  leaders  to  originate, 
and  their  failure  to  adopt  effectual  measures  for  evolving  order 
out  of  the  athletic  and  gymnastic  chaos  over  which  they  nominally 
preside,  constitutes  one  of  the  marvels  of  our  time."  On  Physical 
Education,  in  the  Report  of  the  United  States  Commissioner  of 
Education,  vol.  i,  1897-'98,  pp.  558,  559. 


244  STUDENT  LIFE  AND  CUSTOMS. 

the  dailies,  which  by  their  sensationalism  had  largely- 
created  the  evil.  The  New  York  Nation  led  the  attack, 
assailing  intercollegiate  contests  in  a  keen  and  indis- 
criminating  manner,  and  exhibiting  all  the  bad  aspects 
of  games  from  overtraining  in  preparatory  schools,  to 
the  employment  of  graduate  coaches.  (See  bibliography, 
nnder  "  Godkin.")  Many  of  the  points  made  by  the  Na- 
tion and  the  religious  press  were  legitimate,  but  so  strong 
was  the  animus  of  the  writers,  and  so  wholesale  their 
denunciation,  that  they  excited  only  the  contempt  and 
derision  of  the  athletic  faction.  The  direct  result  of 
this  reaction  and  criticism  was  nil;  indirectly  it  accom- 
plished much  in  stimulating  the  college  authorities  to 
decided  action  and  in  encouraging  the  more  conserva- 
tive element  among  the  undergraduates. 

The  reform  in  college  athletics  has  been  worked  out 
from  within,  and  is  due  to  the  efforts  of  a  few  public- 
spirited  college  presidents,  professors,  and  graduates. 
In  most  colleges  the  amateur  standing  of  the  athletes 
is  maintained  by  one  or  two  vigilant,  well-informed 
men,  usually  members  of  the  faculty.  Without  such 
men,  abuses  creep  in  and  steady  degeneration  ensues. 
There  has  always  existed  a  large  number  of  under- 
graduates, perhaps  a  majority,  in  favour  of  clean  sport, 
but  their  zeal  has  been  so  negative  and  halting  that  they 
were  easily  overridden  by  an  enthusiastic,  unscrupulous 
minority  who  were  out  to  win.  The  neighbourhood  of 
1890  has  been  suggested  as  the  period  when  matters 
reached  a  climax,  and  from  which  an  improvement  may 
be  traced.  This  generalization  is  only  true  of  a  certain 
group  of  large  colleges  on  the  Atlantic  seaboard,  and 
only  true  there  in  a  qualified  sense,  as  progress  has  not 
been  either  rapid  or  uniform.  The  reform  wave  struck 
the  colleges  of  the  West  and  South  somewhat  later. 
The  returns  to  a  circular  letter  (hereafter  to  be  de- 
scribed) showed  that  in  some  colleges  the  struggle  with 


STUDEXT  SOCIETIES  IN   MODERN   PERIOD.     245 

professionalism  is  now  being  fought  out  for  the  first 
time.  The  writer  does  not  mean  to  convey  the  im- 
pression that  a  thoroughgoing  reform  in  athletic 
methods  has  taken  place  since  1890  in  the  Eastern  col- 
leges; such  language  applied  to  many  of  them  would 
seem  absurd.  All  that  he  means  to  say  is,  that  before 
1890  college  athletics  were  deteriorating;  since  that 
date  there  has  been  a  slow  return  to  more  healthful 
ideals.*  How  this  return  was  brought  about  it  is  now 
our  purpose  to  describe. 

During  the  period  of  the  worst  excesses  of  athleti- 
cism the  machinery  of  administrative  control  was  great- 
ly lacking  in  centralization  and  continuity.  On  the  side 
of  the  students  there  was  an  athletic  association,  nomi- 
nally consisting  of  all  the  students,  but  in  reality  domi- 
nated by  the  athletic  element.  The  officers  of  the  associ- 
ation were  those  common  to  all  free  associations — presi- 
dent, vice-president,  secretar}',  and  treasurer — and  were 
elected  by  the  members.  The  athletic  managers,  however, 
who  possessed  the  substance  of  authority,  were  common- 
ly selected  by  either  the  athletic  teams  or  captains. 

The  most  important  function  of  the  association  was 
to  provide  financial  support;  otherwise  the  teams  prac- 

*  It  is  a  difficult  matter  to  estimate  the  amount  of  profession- 
alism in  American  college  athletics  at  the  present  time.  Of  thirty 
colleges  replying  to  a  circular  letter  through  their  physical  direc- 
tors, only  two  admitted  that  it  was  a  serious  issue.  Eleven  re- 
ported slight  traces  of  it,  and  thirteen  declared  themselves  entirely 
free  from  illicit  practices ;  four  of  the  replies  were  so  general  as  to 
be  useless.  Such  evidence  is  not  entirely  valueless,  but  the  replies 
have  such  a  strong  tendency  to  err  on  virtue's  side,  that  little  reli- 
ance can  be  placed  upon  them.  In  two  or  three  of  the  colleges 
reporting  themselves  as  free  from  the  taint,  the  writer  has  personal 
knowledge  of  flagrant  violations.  In  a  majority  of  the  larger  col- 
leges the  letter  of  the  law  as  described  later  is  lived  up  to,  but 
public  sentiment  usually  justifies  liberties  with  the  spirit  which 
are  by  no  means  conducive  to  clean  sport. 


246  STUDENT  LIFE  AND  CUSTOMS. 

tically  managed  themselves.  The  athletic  committee 
of  the  college  faculty  formed  the  only  check  to  their 
proceedings.  These  committees  must  be  credited  with 
good  intentions,  but  suffered  from  lack  of  knowledge,  be- 
cause their  members  had  usually  completed  the  college 
course  in  the  pre-athletic  period.  At  best  their  authority 
could  only  be  exercised  in  a  negative,  veto  manner;  they 
might  check  and  regulate,  but  had, no  power  of  initiating 
measures,  or  of  securing  accountability  in  the  details  of 
administration.  A  more  powerful,  stable,  and  repre- 
sentative body  was  called  for  by  the  needs  of  the  time. 
The  want  was  met  by  the  creation  of  a  permanent 
committee  of  composite  membership,  consisting  of  rep- 
resentatives in  equal  proportions  from  the  faculty,  the 
alumni,  and  the  undergraduates.  The  undergraduate 
members  were  usually  either  the  managers  or  captains 
of  athletic  teams.  In  this  body  the  supervision  and  ul- 
timate control  of  athletics  was  rested.  The  committee 
selected  a  graduate  treasurer,  who  supervised  and  au- 
dited the  accounts  of  all  organizations,  using  the  uni- 
versity grounds  or  buildings.  The  committee  itself 
made  disposition  of  the  athletic  funds  as  it  saw  fit.  In 
addition  to  its  close  financial  control,  the  committee  de- 
termined the  eligibility  rules  of  players,  the  regulations 
to  be  followed  in  intercollegiate  contests,  and  the  mode 
of  electing  captains  and  managers.  By  this  centralizing 
authorit}^  and  establishing  an  executive  body  which  was 
empowered  to  bind  all  members  of  the  university  for  a 
series  of  years,  a  definite  policy  was  for  the  first  time 
made  possible.  Harvard  initiated  the  central  committee 
plan,  and  by  this  instrumentality  was  able  to  exert  a 
strong  leverage  on  the  athletics  of  the  country.* 

*  See  article  by  Augustus  Hemenway,  Important  Suggestions 
in  Athletics,  Harvard  Graduate  Magazine,  vol.  vi,  for  a  history  of 
the  Harvard  committee  on  athletic  sports. 


STUDENT  SOCIETIES  IN  MODERN  PERIOD.    24T 

At  the  present  time  (1901)  an  eligibility  code  has 
been  generally  agreed  upon  by  all  universities  of  good 
athletic  standing  in  the  country;  any  departure  from  it 
subjects  an  institution  to  immediate  suspicion.  From 
the  point  of  view  of  the  university,  the  code  declares 
that  only  hona  fide  students  in  good  standing,  who  give 
notice  of  their  intention  to  remain  throughout  the 
academic  year,  shall  be  permitted  to  play  on  the  univer- 
sity athletic  teams.  Such  students  must  take  a  re- 
quired minimum  course  (usually  ten  hours  a  week),  and 
any  failure  in  scholarship  shall  deprive  them  of  the 
privilege  of  participation,  l^o  student  entering  from 
another  college  shall  be  permitted  to  play  until  he  has 
been  at  least  one  year  in  residence.  The  rules  are 
ironclad  in  their  opposition  to  professionalism:  a  stu- 
dent who  in  any  way,  either  individually  or  as  a  mem- 
ber of  a  team,  has  accepted  remuneration  for  playing, 
or  for  training  athletes,  is  excluded  from  represent- 
ing the  college.  Every  student  must  also  pass  a  phys- 
ical examination,  and  receive  a  certificate  entitling 
him  to  take  part  in  some  particular  sport.  Students 
may  not  play  on  university  teams  for  more  than 
four  years.  It  is  not  necessary  to  add  that  rules 
do  not  enforce  themselves,  and  that  the  athletic 
standing  of  a  college  is  in  no  way  determined  by  its 
rules.* 

A  reasonable  degree  of  uniformity  has  been  reached 
in  the  regulation  of  sport;  it  is  far  otherwise  in  regard 
to  organization.     A  circular  letter  on  the  present  con- 

*  All  these  provisions  are  found  in  the  rules  regulating  ath- 
letic sports  at  Harvard,  Columbia,  and  Pennsylvania.  See  Com- 
mittee on  Regulation  of  Athletic  Sports,  Regulations  on  Athletics, 
Harvard  University.  Rules  governing  students  participating  in 
athletics  in  Columbia  University,  1898.  University  of  Pennsyl- 
vania, Constitution  and  Functions  of  the  University  Athletic 
Committee,  Eligibility  Code,  1898. 


248  STUDENT  LIFE  AND  CUSTOMS. 

dition  of  athletics,  sent  out  by  the  writer  and  answered 
by  the  directors  of  physical  training  in  thirty  colleges, 
showed  the  greatest  diversity  in  the  methods  of  man- 
agement. Three  types  of  government  were  discernible: 
the  highly  centralized,  of  which  Harvard  is  the  best 
example;  the  dual  plan  of  student  athletic  association 
and  faculty  committee;  and  exclusive  student  control, 
tempered  by  graduate  advice.  The  class  of  institutions 
with  the  centralized  organization  is  strongest  in  the 
East,  where  it  is  represented  by  Amherst,  Bowdoin, 
Bates,  University  of  Maine,  and  Wesleyan,  all  of  which 
have  the  graduate,  undergraduate,  and  faculty  elements 
represented  on  their  board  of  control.  Tulane  Univer- 
sity, Louisiana,  is  the  only  college  away  from  the  Atlan- 
tic seaboard  which  reported  the  existence  of  a  board  of 
this  type.  Dual  management  prevails  throughout  the 
West  and  South,  and  is  much  the  most  common  form  of 
organization.  A  few  colleges  noted  for  the  strength  of 
their  student  traditions,  like  Princeton,  Yale,  and  Vir- 
ginia, almost  eliminate  faculty  interference,  although 
the  graduate  element  is  sometimes  present  in  great 
force. 

The  difference  between  the  first  and  third  types  may 
be  seen  by  comparing  Harvard  and  Yale.  At  Harvard 
the  committee  on  the  regulation  of  athletic  sports  su- 
pervises the  election  of  captain,  in  whom  it  invests  all 
delegated  authority.  The  captain  is  elected  by  the 
players  who  have  taken  part  in  the  important  contests 
of  the  preceding  year,  but  the  committee  may  at  any 
time  annul  such  an  election.  The  manager  and  coach 
are  appointed  by  the  captain,  subject  again  to  the  ap- 
proval of  the  committee  on  the  regulation  of  athletic 
sports.  The  captains  and  managers  of  the  various 
teams  are  held  responsible  for  the  observance  of  the 
rules  communicated  to  them  by  the  committee;  the  cap- 
tain is  particularly  responsible  for  the  enforcement  of 


STUDENT  SOCIETIES  IX  MODERN  PERIOD.    219 

the  regulation  in  regard  to  physical  examinations. 
The  members  of  the  team  must  be  passed  upon  by  the 
committee  before  the  first  game  of  the  season.  No 
team  may  be  taken  away  for  a  long  journey  without  a 
written  authorization  from  the  committee,  which  must 
also  be  consulted  by  the  manager  before  arranging 
schedules.* 

At  Yale  the  entire  control  falls  to  the  managers  and 
captains  of  the  four  university  teams.  The  captains 
are  elected,  as  at  Harvard  and  elsewhere,  by  the  mem- 
bers of  the  previous  year's  team,  but  the  managers  are 
chosen  b}^  the  university  at  an  annual  mass  meeting. 
"  The  four  managers,  together  with  a  graduate  treasurer, 
compose  the  financial  union,  and  all  funds  are  received 
and  disbursed  through  this  agency  which  acts  as  com- 
mon pool.  Each  manager,  however,  prides  himself  on 
the  showing  of  his  association,  for  all  the  moneys  are 
credited  to  the  individual  organization  which  turns 
them  in,  and  the  expenditures  of  each  are  kept  in 
separate  accounts,  and  an  annual  report  of  these  is 
published  in  the  columns  of  the  Yale  News.  There 
have  been  graduate  advisory  committees,  both  gen- 
eral and  for  separate  organizations;  but  their  func- 
tions have  not  been  onerous,  and  in  fact  the  general 
advisory  committee  has  not  acted  for  many  years,  al- 
though in  the  early  eighties  it  was  called  upon  several 
times  for  advice,  which  it  rendered  satisfactorily.  Each 
manager  is  practically  omnipotent  in  his  special  branch. 
He  is  his  own  master,  and  responsible  only  to  the  uni- 
versit}^"  \ 

As  the  noise  and  dust  which  resulted  from  the  con- 
flict between  the  athletes  and  their  critics  gradually 
disappear,  the  gain  to  the  student  community  from  the 

*  Harvard  Regulations  on  Athletics,  article  iv,  pp.  5,  6. 
t  Welch  and  Camp.    Yale,  p.  453. 


250  STUDENT   LIP^E  AND  CUSTOMS. 

movement  becomes  more  evident.  One  of  its  great 
services  has  been  the  stimulation  of  many  students  to 
participation  in  some  form  of  physical  activity.  The 
great  match  games  have  been  a  widespread  advertise- 
ment of  the  existence  of  physical  culture  in  the  land. 
The  evils  which  result  from  the  exaggeration  of  college 
sport  affect  only  the  few  men  who  train  for  the  con- 
tests; the  benefits  are  felt  by  hundreds  who  have  never 
seen  the  track  or  oval.  Professor  Taussig,  in  an  in- 
genious paragraph,  argues  that  intercollegiate  games 
do  not  increase  the  interest  in  physical  training,  but,  on 
the  contrary,  "  it  is  the  intercollegiate  contest  that 
springs  from  the  spirit  of  exercise,  not  the  spirit  of  ex- 
ercise from  the  contest."  *  While  this  clause  states 
what  ideally  should  be  the  correct  order,  as  a  matter  of 
fact  it  seems  that  athletics  have  flourished  in  propor- 
tion as  the  competitive  feature  has  been  emphasized. 
In  many  colleges  the  chief  motive  power  is  not  an  in- 
terest in  physical  training,  but  a  craving  for  distinc- 
tion, an  ambition  to  beat  some  one.  Among  nations 
of  Anglo-Saxon  descent  the  desire  for  exercise  is 
chiefly  the  result,  not  the  cause,  of  competitive  con- 
tests. 

The  physical  ideal  which  athletics  exalt  is  calcu- 
lated to  counteract  some  of  the  most  dangerous  tend- 
encies in  modern  life  which  tends  to  produce  neurotic 
and  luxury-loving  individuals.  The  great  co-operative 
games  call  not  only  for  swiftness  and  strength,  "  but 
make  for  courage,  coolness,  steadiness  of  nerve,  quick- 
ness of  apprehension,  resourcefulness,   self-knowledge 


*  Taussig,  F.  W.  A  Professor's  View  of  Athletics,  Harvard 
Graduate  Magazine,  vol.  iii.  p.  307.  For  the  opposite  view,  see 
Annual  Report  of  the  President  and  Treasurer  of  Harvard  Col- 
lege, 1893-'93,  p.  17,  and  Walker,  F.  A.,  College  Athletics,  Har- 
vard Graduate  Magazine,  vol.  ii,  p.  13. 


STUDEXT  SOCIETIES  IX   MODERX   PERIOD.     251 

and  self-reliance,  qualities  useful  in  any  profession."  * 
The  great  public  contests  not  only  develop  these  quali- 
ties, but  afford  as  well  impressive  examples  to  the  minds 
of  the  spectators.  These  games  have  diffused  a  greater 
desire  for  bodily  excellence,  and  a  greater  admiration 
for  such  manly  qualities  as  courage  and  fortitude  among 
the  schoolboys  of  the  country.  In  an  age  when  indus- 
try and  polities — the  two  great  interests  of  American 
life — are  becoming  more  mechanical,  it  is  no  small  thing 
to  have  an  admiration  for  the  physical  virtues  spread 
abroad  among  all  classes  of  the  population. 

The  social  training  which  comes  from  college  ath- 
letics has  been  often  spoken  of  in  the  highest  terms,  and 
elaborated  in  great  detail.  It  is  pointed  out  that  in 
the  competitive  struggle  between  colleges,  something 
akin  to  patriotism  is  developed;  that  men  sacrifice  op- 
portunities of  individual  distinction  for  the  good  of 
the  team,  that  the  few  are  trained  to  command,  the 
many  to  intelligent  subordination.  That  under  proper 
conditions  these  games  might  be  made  important 
means  of  social  control  has  been  fully  established  by 
English  experience,  as  described  in  a  preceding  chap- 
ter. However,  it  may  be  doubted  whether  these  results 
are  actually  obtained  in  man}^  American  colleges  at  the 
present  time.  The  students  are  not  habituated  to  the 
athletic  tradition  sufficiently  early  in  life,  and  the  at- 
mosphere of  trickery,  sharp  diplomacy,  and  even  strong 
personal  animosity  among  members  of  the  same  teams, 
is  unfavourable  to  the  cultivation  of  the  social  virtues. 

From  the  standpoint  of  the  public,  college  athletics 
may  be  said  to  have  made  a  great  contribution  to  popu- 
lar amusement.     In  the  growing  monotony  and  inten- 

*  College  Athletics.  Francis  A.  Walker,  Harvard  Graduate 
Magazine,  vol.  ii,  p.  13.  See  also  in  this  connection  an  article  by 
Luther  Gulick,  Pedagogical  Seminary,  March,  1899. 


252  STUDENT  LIFE  AND   CUSTOMS. 

sity  of  American  life,  an  ont-of-door  attraction  which, 
arouses  a  deep  and  healthy  enthusiasm  in  the  commu- 
nity at  large  is  a  genuine  contribution  to  civilization. 
The  rapid  spread  of  football  in  the  West  and  South  was 
probably  to  a  great  extent  due  to  the  feeling  that  it 
supplied  a  long-felt  want.  Among  the  students  also, 
competitive  sports  give  an  added  charm  and  interest  to 
college  life.  Without  athletics  there  would  hardly  be 
those  strong  emotional  reactions,  the  passionate  love 
for  certain  colleges  and  colours,  and  equally  strong  de- 
testation for  certain  others,  which  now  form  such  a 
strong  and  attractive  element  in  undergraduate  life.* 

The  two  problems  which  confront  college  athletics 
to-day  are,  (1)  the  realization  of  a  higher  ideal  of  sport 
which  involves  the  relegation  of  the  now  all-important 
factor  of  intercollegiate  competition  to  a  secondary  po- 
sition, and  the  substitution  therefor  of  an  adequate 
conception  of  physical  culture,  and  (2)  the  extension  of 
the  benefits  of  organized  games  to  a  much  larger  num- 
ber of  undergraduates. 

The  growth  of  a  healthier  ideal  must  of  necessity  be 
a  work  of  time,  and  is  dependent  on  the  rise  of  more 
rational  views  among  the  graduates,  the  faculties,  and 
the  intelligent  public.  The  attempts  to  limit  athletic 
contests  to  college  grounds,  and  to  multiply  games  with- 
in the  college,  are  steps  in  the  right  direction.  The  dif- 
fusion of  an  active  athletic  interest  among  all  the  un- 
dergraduates would  be  a  most  important  move  toward 
the  goal.     A  great  responsibility  here  rests  upon  the 

*  It  is  sometimes  urged  in  behalf  of  athletics  that  they  fill  a 
man's  time  to  the  exclusion  of  vice  and  dissipation.  During 
training  there  is  necessarily  an  improvement,  but  in  general  it 
may  be  said  that  the  reaction  against  the  severe  rules  of  training 
is  likely  to  carry  men  into  dissipation  who  had  hitherto  avoided 
it.  This  only  applies  to  members  of  the  team  and  others  who 
specialize  in  athletics. 


STUDENT  SOCIETIES  IN   MODERN   PERIOD.    253 

secondary  schools  which  mould  the  student^s  tastes  dur- 
ing his  most  impressionable  period,  when  his  instincts 
lead  him  to  games  and  physical  activity.  All  the  bur- 
den can  not  be  shifted  from  the  colleges,  which  might 
do  much  more  than  they  are  attempting  at  present  to 
make  athletics  general. 

At  present,  probably  twenty  per  cent  of  the  under- 
graduates, or  one  student  in  five,  participates  sufficiently 
in  athletic  games  to  be  appreciably  influenced  thereby. 
At  Harvard  a  careful  study  made  in  189?  showed  that 
twenty-one  per  cent  of  the  undergraduates  passed  the 
examinations  entitling  them  to  take  part.  It  is  hardly 
reasonable  to  suppose  that  all  these  men  trained  regu- 
larly.* On  the  other  hand,  many  men  played  hand- 
ball and  tennis  without  securing  permits.  If  we  make 
these  two  classes  balance  each  other,  our  general  esti- 
mate would  hold  true  of  Harvard.     A  circular  letter f 

*  Report  of  President  and  Treasurer  of  Harvard  College,  1897. 
f  The  circular  letter  asked  the  following  questions  : 

1.  What  proportion  of  the  students  can  be  accommodated  on 
the  athletic  grounds  ? 

2.  What  proportion  of  the  students  train  in  the  various  ac- 
tivities during  the  different  seasons-? 

3.  What  organizations  control  athletics? 

4.  Have  you  had  any  difficulty  with  professionalism  ? 

The  letter  was  sent  to  forty  colleges  in  all  sections  of  the  coun- 
try. Twenty  of  the  largest  and  most  influential  institutions  were 
chosen  to  represent  one  class,  and  twenty  small  colleges  in  New 
England  and  the  West  stood  for  another  class.  The  following 
thirty  institutions  responded:  Of  the  larger  colleges— California, 
Columbia,  Cornell,  Harvard,  Johns  Hopkins,  Leland  Stanford, 
Minnesota,  Nebraska,  New  York.  North  Carolina,  Pennsylvania, 
Princeton,  Tulane,  Vanderbilt,  Virginia,  Wisconsin,  and  Yal^; 
from  the  group  of  smaller  colleges — Amherst,  Bates,  Bowdoin, 
Cornell  College,  Des  Moines,  Hillsdale,  Iowa  College,  Grinnell, 
Maine,  Parsons,  Tabor,  Wesleyan,  and  Whitman.  Comparing  the 
two  groups,  there  appeared  to  be  no  generic  difference  in  regard 


254  STUDENT  LIFE  AND  CUSTOMS. 

sent  to  the  directors  of  physical  training  in  Ameri- 
can colleges  produced  the  following  results:  Out  of 
twenty-eight  institutions  replying,  seven  reported  less 
than  twenty  per  cent  of  students  taking  part  in  ath- 
letics, twelve  reported  that  from  twenty  to  twenty-five 
per  cent  participated,  six  placed  the  estimate  between 
twenty-five  and  fifty  per  cent,  with  three  above  the 
fifty-per-cent  line.  New  York  University  led  with 
eighty  per  cent,  while  the  University  of  Nebraska  stood 
at  the  foot  of  the  column,  with  only  seven  per  cent. 
When  allowance  is  made  for  the  tendency  on  the  part  of 
the  physical  directors  to  have  their  institution  stand 
well  and  consequently  to  give  themselves  the  benefit  of 
all  doubts,  it  will  be  seen  that  twenty  per  cent  is  prob- 
ably a  fair  average. 

The  replies  to  question  1  of  the  circular,  in  refer- 
ence to  athletic  accommodations,  were  somewhat  sur- 
prising. Fifteen  colleges  could  furnish  athletic  privi- 
leges to  all  their  students,  five  could  accommodate  from 
fifty  per  cent  upward,  and  only  nine  could  care  for  less 
than  fifty  per  cent.  In  a  number  of  instances  it  was 
evident,  from  the  tenor  of  the  response,  that  the  college 
possessed  sufficient  bare  ground  for  athletic  purposes, 

to  interest  in  athletics,  the  variations  between  colleges  being 
equally  prominent  in  both  groups.  The  small  colleges  seemed  to 
be  better  equipped  in  regard  to  athletic  grounds,  but  even  here 
the  difference  was  not  marked. 

Some  of  the  percentages  for  the  different  colleges  may  prove 
of  interest :  Amherst  about  one  fourth,  Bowdoin  fully  fifty  per 
cent,  Cornell  College  from  ten  to  fifteen  per  cent,  Wesleyan  at 
least  twenty-five  per  cent,  California  twenty  per  cent,  Columbia 
twenty-five  per  cent,  Pennsylvania  from  one  third  to  one  fourth, 
Vanderbilt  thirty  per  cent. 

The  answers  to  questions  1  and  2  have  been  previously  noted. 
It  should  be  remembered  that  these  are  but  estimates  at  best,  and 
that  they  do  not  include  private  athletics  or  gymnasium  work, 
which  in  some  institutions  is  compulsory. 


STUDENT  SOCIETIES  IN  MODERN  PERIOD.    255 

but  nothing  would  warrant  the  statement  that  it  was 
sufficiently  improved  for  games. 

Concise  replies  to  this  question  would  at  any  rate  be 
difficult,  because  the  serviceability  of  the  playing  fields 
depends  to  a  certain  extent  on  the  arrangement  of  in- 
struction. Grounds  sufficient  for  a  student  body,  if 
they  could  be  used  all  the  time,  would  be  insufficient 
if  the  students  could  only  utilize  them  between  the 
hours  of  four  and  six  in  the  afternoon.  Taking  all 
these  facts  into  consideration,  we  are  justified  in  con- 
cluding that  few  American  colleges  could  meet  the  de- 
mands of  the  undergraduates  for  out-of-door  activity  if 
all  the  students  desired  to  join  in  the  games. 

The  first  step  in  the  creation  of  an  active  athletic 
interest  among  the  students  is  therefore  a  sufficient  im- 
provement of  facilities  to  make  their  participation  pos- 
sible. The  next  move  would  probably  be,  as  we  have 
before  suggested,  the  multiplication  of  internal  con- 
tests and  organizations,  which  would  in  time  lead  to 
an  increase  in  their  importance.  Such  a  change  is  by 
no  means  easy  when  all  the  interest  is  concentrated 
on  intercollegiate  contests.  Progress  here,  as  elsewhere, 
must  necessarily  be  slow.  In  fact,  the  two  lines  of  im- 
provement which  we  have  suggested — the  clarifying  of 
the  athletic  ideal  and  the  diffusion  of  athletic  inter- 
est— are  interdependent;  neither  is  possible  without  the 
other. 


§  5.  Self-go VERxixG  Associatioxs  ix  the 
MoDERx  Period. 

On  a  previous  page  we  noted  the  antagonism  be- 
tween faculty  and  students,  and  the  double  standard  of 
honour  engendered  thereby — a  standard  which  justified 
a  student  in  lying  to  the  authorities,  in  cheating  at 
examinations,  and  in  indulging  in  disorders  and  ex- 


256  STUDENT  LIFE  AND  CUSTOMS. 

cesses  of  various  kinds.  "  The  professors  are  employed 
to  catch  us;  it  is  our  business  to  escape  by  any  means 
in  our  power,"  was  the  instinctive  thought  of  the 
American  undergraduate,  although  not  more  than  ten 
or  fifteen  per  cent  of  the  students  customarily  took  ad- 
vantage of  the  double  standard  to  cause  trouble.  About 
1870,  experiments  in  student  self-government  were  in- 
augurated, which  aimed  to  enlist  the  eighty-five  or 
ninety  per  cent  of  law-abiding  students  in  the  active 
maintenance  of  order.  President  Warfield,  of  Lafay- 
ette, in  a  recent  article  has  expressed  the  standpoint  of 
the  innovators:  "  Give  the  seventy-five  or  more  per 
cent  of  orderly  students  a  voice  in  the  determination  of 
college  conduct,  teach  them  how  to  use  that  voice,  en- 
courage them  to  think  that  their  reputation  and  the 
reputation  of  the  college  are  at  stake,  and  by  an  ener- 
getic public  opinion  they  will  more  effectively  sup- 
press the  disorderly  element  than  any  law  that  can  be 
applied  will  ever  do."  * 

Before  passing  on  to  the  history  of  the  self-govern- 
ing idea  in  different  colleges,  it  may  be  observed  that 
the  more  recent  experiments  are  not  continuous  with 
the  schemes  in  operation  during  the  Revolutionary 
period.  The  houses  of  students,  students'  courts,  and 
juries  passed  away  without  leaving  any  appreciable  im- 
pression on  college  tradition.  The  only  exception  to 
this  generalization  is  the  honour  system  of  the  Univer- 
sity of  Virginia,  which  has  not  only  survived  in  its 
parent  institution  but  has  also  influenced  student  life 
in  many  other  colleges,  f 

Probably  the  most  comprehensive  scheme  of  student 

*  Student  Co-operation  in  College  Government,  Educational 
Review,  vol.  viii,  p.  450.  The  same  position  is  taken  by  James  C. 
Mackenzie,  Honor  in  Student  Life,  School  Review,  vol.  vii,  p.  72. 

f  Adams,  H.  B.  Thomas  Jefferson  and  the  University  of  Vir- 
ginia, p.  156. 


STUDENT  SOCIETIES  IN  MODERN  PERIOD.    257 

self-government  ever  attempted  in  the  United  States 
was  that  inaugurated  at  the  University  of  Illinois  in 
1868.  At  the  opening  of  the  college,  the  president  laid 
the  question  of  discipline  before  the  students  in  a  short 
address,  pointing  out  the  need  of  better  relations  be- 
tween faculty  and  students  than  those  which  existed  in 
adjacent  colleges,  and  emphasizing  the  civic  bearings 
of  the  problem.  The  students  considered  the  proposi- 
tion for  some  days  and  then  declared  it  their  unani- 
mous desire  to  proceed  with  the  scheme  of  organization. 
A  committee  was  appointed,  and  soon  reported  a  consti- 
tution which  divided  all  the  functions  of  government 
into  the  executive,  legislative,  and  judicial  of  the  Fed- 
eral Constitution.  The  entire  body  of  students  were  to 
represent  the  legislative  branch;  a  president,  vice-presi- 
dent, secretary,  treasurer,  and  marshal  served  as  the 
executive  branch;  and  a  court  of  three  judges  tried 
all  offences.  Laws  for  preserving  order,  regulations 
against  gambling  and  drinking  intoxicants,  against  vio- 
lations of  sundry  rights  of  students  and  trespassing  on 
college  property,  were  passed,  and  fines,  ranging  from  a 
few  cents  to  five  dollars,  were  levied  for  violations  of  the 
code.  The  new  government  went  into  operation  with 
great  seriousness;  students  of  a  mature  age,  conspicu- 
ous for  scholarship  and  ability,  were  chosen  officers; 
good  order  was  established  and  maintained  with  little 
difficulty,  notwithstanding  the  efforts  of  a  few  turbu- 
lent students  to  discredit  the  entire  plan. 

In  a  few  years  the  number  of  students  increased  to 
such  an  extent  that  the  general  assembly  of  students 
became  too  unwieldy  a  body  for  ordinary  business,  and 
a  senate  of  twenty-one  members  was  substituted.  In 
the  development  of  the  scheme  two  defects  became  evi- 
dent: (1)  abrupt  changes  in  policy  between  administra- 
tions which  brought  about  a  perpetual  state  of  flux  in 
discipline,  and  (2)  much  self-conceit  among  the  student 
17 


258  STUDENT  LIFE  AND   CUSTOMS. 

officials.  When  the  novelty  of  the  experiment  wore 
away,  the  serious  task  of  governing  became  irksome 
to  the  officials,  and  the  execution  of  the  law  lax,  until 
the  rapid  increase  of  offences  aroused  the  slumbering 
rulers.  These  conditions  in  time  produced  factions. 
The  laws  would  be  executed  vigorously  by  the  strong 
.men  of  the  college  for  a  time;  then  the  law  breakers  and 
their  sympathizers  would  defeat  the  law-and-order 
party  in  the  elections  and  an  entire  change  of  policy 
would  take  place,  only  in  turn  to  produce  another  re- 
action in  favour  of  severity.  The  possession  of  so 
much  power  seemed  to  intoxicate  the  young  and  weak; 
the  student  officials  had  such  an  exalted  conception  of 
their  own  wisdom  that  they  refused  to  accept  counsel 
from  older  heads.  On  the  slightest  appearance  of  in- 
terference they  threatened  rebellion,  and  serious  out- 
breaks were  avoided  only  with  the  greatest  difficulty. 
Notwithstanding  these  two  serious  defects,  the  experi- 
ment was  considered  a  success  for  some  years,  because 
it  secured  good  order  without  the  intervention  of  the 
faculty.* 

The  defects  became  more  pronounced  with  advan- 
cing years;  the  students  objected  to  the  espionage  of 
their  fellows,  and  the  need  of  some  method  of  balancing 
their  authority  became  increasingly  evident.  At  the 
same  time  the  legality  of  the  plan  began  to  be  ques- 
tioned. The  Attorney-General  of  Illinois  decided  that 
the  student  government  possessed  no  legal  right  to  as- 
sess and  collect  fines.  This  decision  made  the  co-opera- 
tion of  the  faculty  necessary  to  the  continuation  of  the 
plan.  Student  rule  existed  for  a  few  years  longer 
under  the  protection  of  the  authorities,  but  was  finally 
abolished  in  1883  by  a  vote  of  the  students  themselves. 

*  Gregory,  John  M.     An  Experiment  in  College  Government, 
International  Review,  vol.  x,  p.  517. 


STUDENT  SOCIETIES  IN  MODERN  PERIOD.    259 

Out  of  three  hundred  aud  fifty  students  only  seventy- 
six  voted  for  its  continuance.* 

In  1873  more  limited  powers  were  vested  in  the  stu- 
dents of  the  University  of  Maine,  then  known  as  the 
Maine  State  College.  The  framework  of  government 
was  much  simpler  than  that  in  the  University  of  Illi- 
nois. The  members  of  a  student  council  were  elected 
by  the  different  classes,  subject  to  the  approval  of  the 
faculty,  which  might  veto  objectionable  candidates.  The 
general  place  of  the  council  was  to  serve  as  an  inter- 
mediary body  between  faculty  and  students.  Its  more 
specific  duties  were  to  secure  the  maintenance  of  order 
on  the  different  floors,  neatness  of  halls,  and  the  observ- 
ance of  public  regulations  within  and  without  the  pub- 
lic buildings.  In  the  operation  of  the  plan  each  new 
council  has  found  its  work  easy  if  it  managed  success- 
fully the  first  one  or  two  cases  of  disorder  which  came 
before  it.  If  the  council  thus  demonstrated,  in  the 
language  of  the  street,  that  "  it  meant  business,"  there 
was  no  further  trouble.  The  historian  of  the  council 
claims  that  it  has  contributed  to  a  better  understand- 
ing and  more  harmonious  relations  between  faculty 
and  students  than  could  have  otherwise  existed,  that  it 
has  rendered  discipline  easier  and  more  effective,  and 
has  had  a  tendency  to  prevent  misdemeanours.  ¥/hen 
violations  have  occurred  the  council  has  disposed  of  the 
minor  cases  satisfactorily  without  the  intervention  of 
the  faculty,  and  thus  saved  ,the  professors  time  and 
temper.  Among  the  students  the  plan  has  developed 
the  habits  and  principles  of  self-government,  so  impor- 
tant in  all  the  periods  and  relations  of  life.f 

*  Peabody,  Selim  H.  An  Educational  Experiment,  Proceed- 
ings of  the  National  Educational  Association,  1889,  p.  543. 

f  Fernald,  M.  C.  Co-operative  Government,  in  Proceedings  of 
the  National  Educational  Association.  1890.  p.  686.  This  writer 
enumerates  the  requisites  of  a  successful  self-governing  plan  : 


260  STUDENT  LIFE  AND  CUSTOMS. 

In  1866  the  University  of  South  Carolina  altered 
its  discipline  to  fit  into  a  self-government  plan,  and  in 
1870  Indiana  University  followed  its  example,  meeting 
with  considerable  success  for  a  few  years.  The  move- 
ment reached  the  lower  schools.  The  New  York  Even- 
ing Post  for  December,  1880,  published  a  series  of 
articles  by  a  successful  city  teacher,  describing  the  ex- 
periments in  student  government  which  he  had  been 
cautiously  conducting  for  a  number  of  years.* 

More  celebrated  than  these  early  experiments  was 
the  Amherst  senate,  inaugurated  in  1883.  For  the  old 
in  loco  parentis  theory  of  college  discipline  it  substi- 
tuted a  voluntary  contract  between  faculty  and  student. 
It  was  based  on  the  assumption  that  a  student's  rela- 
tions to  his  fellows  was  a  very  important  one,  and  that 
in  this  relation  the  undergraduates  have  a  far  better 
opportunity  than  the  faculty  for  judging  of  a  man's  con- 
duct. The  senate  consisted  of  ten  members — four  from 
the  senior,  three  from  the  junior,  two  from  the  sopho- 
more, and  one  from  the  freshman  class.  A  veto  on 
the  proceedings  of  the  senate  was  vested  in  the  presi- 
dent of  the  college,  but  he  did  not  belong  to  it  or 
attend  its  sessions.  The  senate  supervised  class  suppers, 
student  publications,  and  for  a  time  athletics,  which 
was  later  placed  under  a  separate  board.     Often,  when 

(1)  His  earnest  and  hearty  acceptance  by  both  students  and 
faculty. 

(2)  The  insistence  that  onlf  the  best  men,  who  are  reliable  and 
have  the  courage  of  their  convictions,  shall  hold  places  in  the 
council,  so  that  the  membership  of  this  body  shall  be  regarded  as 
an  honour  as  well  as  a  responsibility. 

(3)  The  cordial  and  hearty  support  of  the  council  by  the  fac- 
ulty, so  it  shall  be  known  that  all  reasonable  actions,  rulings,  and 
assignments  of  penalties  on  the  part  of  the  council  will  be  sus- 
tained. 

*  Stevens,  W.  L.  Self-Governraent  in  Colleges,  Popular  Sci- 
ence Monthly,  vol.  xix,  p.  697. 


STUDENT  SOCIETIES  IX  .MODERN  PERIOD.     261 

a  veto  was  threatened,  the  students  became  excited  and 
supported  the  senate  to  a  man.  Differences  of  opinion 
between  the  president  and  senate  were  usually  com- 
promised, only  one  veto  occurring  in  eight  years.  The 
senate  was  abolished  in  1894  by  a  new  college  adminis- 
tration which  was  out  of  sympathy  with  the  self-govern- 
ment idea.  The  general  influence  of  the  Amherst  sys- 
tem was  toward  a  more  wholesome  manliness.* 

In  order  to  ascertain  the  extent  of  student  self- 
government  in  American  colleges,  the  writer  issued  a 
circular  letter  to  forty  institutions — twenty  small  col- 
leges in  N"ew  England  and  the  West  and  the  twenty 
largest  American  universities.  Out  of  the  thirty-two 
colleges  replying,  eighteen  had  experimented  with  some 
form  of  student  control.  Three  of  the  attempts  had 
been  marked  failures  and  at  the  time  of  the  report  had 
been  discontinued.  The  small  colleges  seemed  to  dis- 
play a  somewhat  greater  interest  in  the  problem  than 
the  universities.  ISTo  geographical  difference  between 
the  East  and  the  South  and  West  could  be  discovered. 
Five  distinct  classes  of  self-governing  schemes  were  dis- 
cernible, viz.,  (1)  student  courts  for  those  caught  cheat- 
ing in  examinations,  (2)  advisory  committees  to  the  fac- 
ulty, (3)  committees  having  more  or  less  general  disci- 
plinary power,  (4)  committees  for  the  maintenance  of 
order  in  some  one  dormitory,  and  (5)  student  body  asso- 
ciations differing  from  the  four  preceding  forms  in  hav- 
ing no  connection  with  discipline.! 

*  Bigham,  John.  An  Instructive  Experiment  in  College  Gov- 
ernment, Educational  Review,  vol.  iii,  p.  162. 

f  The  circular  letter  was  issued  February  7,  1899,  stating  in  full 
the  purpose  of  the  investigation.  The  colleges  replying  were,  from 
the  group  of  small  colleges,  Amherst,  Bowdoin,  Bates,  Coe,  Grin- 
nell,  Maine,  Middlebury,  Parsons,  Tabor,  Trinity,  Vermont,  Wes- 
leyan,  and  Williams ;  from  the  universities,  Brown,  California, 
Chicago,  Cornell,  Harvard,  Leland  Stanford,  Michigan,  Minnesota, 


262  STUDENT  LIFE  AND  CUSTOMS. 

The  honour  system  of  conducting  examinations  is 
said  to  enforce  itself  in  the  Southern  colleges.  The 
professor  takes  no  precaution  against  dishonesty,  and 
in  some  cases  goes  so  far  as  to  leave  the  room  while 
the  papers  are  being  prepared  by  the  students.  Any 
student  detected  in  cheating  is  taken  severely  in  hand 
by  his  fellows,  who  sometimes  compel  him  to  leave  the 
college.*  The  sentiment  of  honour  in  the  Southern 
sense  hardly  exists  in  the  Northern  colleges;  Southern 
students  in  the  North  are  often  considered  quixotic  be- 
cause of  their  tendency  to  take  offence  quickly,  f  The 
average  Northern  undergraduate,  however  scrupulous 
he  may  be  personally,  is  likely  to  think  that  his  responsi- 
bility ends  there,  and  that  other  men  are  quite  capable 
of  managing  their  own  concerns.     Consequently,  in  the 

Nebraska,  New  York,  North  Carolina,  Northwestern,  Pennsyl- 
vania, Princeton,  Texas,  Tulane,  Vanderbilt,  Virginia,  Yale. 

*  That  the  system  sometimes  fails  in  its  operation  even  in  its 
home,  the  South,  is  seen  by  the  following  quotation  : 

"  But  there  is  no  doubt  a  certain  amount  of  cheating  on  exam- 
inations. In  every  assemblage  of  men  there  are  a  few  of  the  baser 
sort  who  are  insensible  of  appeals  made  to  their  higher  nature, 
but  these  are  seldom  hardy  enough  to  brave  the  strong  public  opin- 
ion that  exists  on  the  subject  by  open  and  flagrant  cheating.  A 
number  of  years  ago  one  of  the  Greek-letter  fraternities  expelled 
two  members  on  the  charge  of  cheating.  More  recently  some  stu- 
dents in  one  of  the  professional  departments  on  the  campus  were 
accused  of  crookedness  in  examination.  One  or  two  of  them  were 
indicted,  tried  before  a  student  jury,  and  acquitted." — L.  S.  Mer- 
riam,  Higher  Education  in  Tennessee,  pp.  165,  166. 

f  The  writer  does  not  mean  to  convey  the  impression  that 
Northern  students  are  more  unscrupulous  and  untrustworthy  than 
their  Southern  contemporaries.  There  are  certainly  no  data  which 
would  lead  to  this  conclusion.  The  sentiment  of  honour  is  an  aris- 
tocratic product  fostered  in  the  South  by  family  pride ;  it  is  the 
result  of  ante-bellum  conditions.  The  North  has  always  been 
essentially  democratic. 


STUDENT  SOCIETIES  IX  MODERN   PERIOD.     263 

application  of  the  honour  system  to  Xorthern  condi- 
tions it  has  been  necessary  to  emphasize  the  formal  side 
with  its  tribunals  for  detecting  and  punishing  guilty 
parties.  The  attempt  has  been  made  to  put  the  control 
of  examinations  on  a  more  constitutional  basis.  It  is 
made  the  duty  of  each  student,  who  sees  another  crib- 
bing or  cheating,  to  report  the  fact  to  a  student  jury. 
At  Cornell  the  jury,  or  court,  consisted  of  ten  under- 
graduates, elected  in  the  ratio  of  four  seniors,  three 
juniors,  two  sophomores,  one  freshman,  and  the  presi- 
dent of  the  university.  The  rules  adopted  at  the  Uni- 
versity of  Vermont  grant  the  accused  the  right  of  being 
confronted  with  the  witnesses  against  him,  and  make  a 
unanimous  vote  of  the  jury  necessary  to  convict.  All 
fraternity  brothers  are  excluded  from  service  while  a 
member  of  their  society  is  on  trial.  If  adjudged  guilty, 
the  name  of  the  person  is  published  in  the  college 
paper  and  posted  on  the  university  bulletin  board,  and 
he  is  deprived  of  the  right  to  vote  in  class  or  public 
meetings,  and  to  hold  any  office  within  the  gift  of  the 
class  or  student  body.* 

The  replies  to  the  circular  letter  showed  that  sev- 
enteen colleges  out  of  the  thirty-two  reporting  had 
adopted  the  honour  system,  including  Grinnell,  Maine, 
Middlebury,  Tabor,  Vermont,  Williams,  Cornell  and 
Princeton,  California  and  Leland  Stanford,  after  a 
short  trial,  abandoned  the  method.  As  to  the  success 
of  the  plan  in  the  North,  reports  are  conflicting.  At 
Princeton  and  Cornell  we  have  the  word  of  the  highest 
authorities  that  the  honour  system  has  wrought  a  great 
moral  change  in  student  life.f     The  introduction  of 


*  See  Broadside  Student  Honour  System,  University  of  Ver- 
mont, February  28,  1898. 

f  Mackenzie,  J.  C.  Honour  in  Student  Life,  School  Review, 
vol.  vii,  p.  74. 


264  STUDENT  LIFE  AND  CUSTOMS. 

student  control  of  examinations  at  Cornell  was  the 
means  of  establishing  a  self-governing  committee,  which 
has  jurisdiction  over  all  cases  of  college  discipline.* 

Notwithstanding  the  notable  utterances  in  favour  of 
the  honour  system  in  Northern  colleges,  one  may  well 
doubt  whether  its  introduction  has  ever  accomplished 
more  than  a  healthy  agitation  of  the  subject  in  the 
student  community.  A  temporary  improvement  often 
follows  its  adoption  because  of  the  agitation,  but  the 
moral  strenuousness  originated  is  usually  short-lived, 
and  cheating  soon  resumes  its  normal  proportions.  A 
graduate  of  a  prominent  New  England  college  (Wil- 
liams) is  responsible  for  the  statement  that  there  was 
neither  more  nor  less  cheating  after  the  adoption  of  the 
honour  system  than  before.  At  Leland  Stanford  Uni- 
versity the  system  was  adopted  by  a  sweeping  majority 
and  with  much  enthusiasm;  mature  and  representative 
students  were  selected  for  the  committee,  but  the  entire 
matter  disappeared  completely  from  view  because  no 

*  From  a  report  of  the  working  of  the  new  system  by  the  four 
senior  members  of  the  class  of  1894  we  take  the  following :  "  It 
was  scarcely  to  be  expected  that  all  dishonesty  in  examinations 
would  disappear  the  moment  the  new  system  went  into  effect. 
Such  was  not  the  case,  though  there  was  a  considerable  improve- 
ment both  in  the  amount  of  cribbing  and  the  general  attitude  of 
the  students  toward  it.  During  the  first  year  the  committee  was 
obliged  to  investigate  eleven  cases  of  cheating  in  examinations, 
and  the  guilty  parties  were  suspended  from  the  university  for  two 
or  three  terms  each." — A  New  Feature  of  College  Life  at  Cornell : 
The  Student  Self-Government  Council,  p.  2  (pamphlet). 

The  following  note  from  President  Schurman,  dated  April  4, 
1900,  explains  itself:  "I  should  add  that  upon  the  subsequent  re- 
organization of  our  faculties  the  system  fell  into  abeyance  so  far 
as  the  organization  is  concerned,  in  consequence  of  a  failure  on 
the  part  of  the  students  to  express  a  desire  for  its  continuance. 
The  spirit  of  the  system  still  prevails,  nevertheless,  at  Cornell  Uni- 
versity." 


STUDENT  SOCIETIES  IX  MODERN  PERIOD.    265 

one  reported  cases  of  dishonesty.  There  was  nothing 
for  the  committee  to  do,  and  it  soon  disappeared.  Pub- 
lic sentiment  held  it  dishonourable  and  belittling  for 
a  man  to  report  on  his  fellows,  and  before  this  feeling 
the  honour  system  was  powerless.  In  brief,  the  strong 
sense  of  personal  honour  is  the  peculiar  product  of 
Southern  life  and  conditions  and  can  not  be  developed 
in  a  different  environment  by  copying  the  forms 
through .  which  it  works.  Before  deploring  this  fact 
too  deeply  it  is  well  to  remember  that  the  value  of  the 
honour  system  may  be  easily  overestimated.  In  at  least 
one  Southern  college  (University  of  Georgia),  while  it  is 
highly  dishonourable  for  a  student  to  cheat  in  exami- 
nations, public  sentiment  permits  him  to  crib  in  a  daily 
recitation. 

The  second  and  slightest  form  of  student  control 
is  through  an  advisory  committee  to  which  the  faculty 
turn  for  consultation  in  the  crises  of  college  discipline. 
The  supporters  of  this  plan,  usually  college  presidents, 
felt  that  there  should  be  some  method  of  ascertaining 
student  sentiment  in  such  a  way  as  to  prevent  those 
misunderstandings  which  always  result  from  a  cleav- 
age between  two  separate  standpoints.  Advisory  com- 
mittees are  found  at  Bates,  Vermont,  Wesleyan,  and 
Pennsylvania,  and  are  reported  satisfactory  by  both 
the  parties  concerned.  These  bodies  are  usually  known 
as  conference  committees,  and  are  elected  by  the  mem- 
bers of  the  different  college  classes  in  the  ratio  before 
noted  in  the  Amherst  senate — four  seniors,  three  jun- 
iors, two  sophomores,  and  one  freshman. 

In  four  colleges  which  have  reported — Bowdoin, 
Maine,  Tulane,  and  Cornell — certain  definite  powers  are 
lodged  with  the  student  councils,  the  composition  of 
which  is  similar  to  that  of  the  preceding  class.  The 
Bowdoin  plan  vests  the  greatest  authority  in  its  stu- 
dent jury,  which  has  "  absolute  and  final  jurisdiction 


266  STUDENT  LIFE  AND  CUSTOMS. 

over  all  cases  of  public  disorder  and  all  offences  com- 
mitted by  the  students  against  each  other."  *  The 
president  of  the  college  is  in  no  sense  a  member  of  the 
jury,  his  relation  to  it  being  for  the  most  part  like  that 
of  a  judge  to  a  civil  jury.  He  may  present  to  them 
any  matter  of  business,  may  assist  them  in  any  way 
they  may  desire  in  the  discharge  of  their  duties,  may 
point  out  to  them  omissions  or  errors  in  their  ascer- 
tainment or  appreciation  of  facts,  or  remonstrate  with 
them  for  the  undue  levity  or  severity  of  their  decisions. 
But  he  can  not  control  their  legitimate  action  as  jury- 
men, except  as  provided  in  the  articles  of  agreement, 
and  he  can  not  call  upon  them  to  perform  any  duty  as 
jurymen  not  plainly  committed  to  them  in  these  articles. 
The  institution  of  student  juries f  has  relieved  the  ten- 
sion between  faculty  and  undergraduates  on  the  subject 
of  hazing  which  in  1883,  when  the  departure  was  in- 
troduced, threatened  the  prosperity  of  the  college.  In 
other  respects  the  new  system  has  secured  fair  results. 
"  The  members  of  the  jury,  as  was  expected,  have  not 
been  far  in  advance  of  their  constituents,  and  have 
quietly  ignored  things  they  could  not  control.  But  the 
system  has  slowly  done  great  good  in  moulding  public 
sentiment  among  the  students,  and  in  teaching  the 
much-needed  lesson  that  they  themselves  are  largely 
responsible  for  the  good  government  of  the  college.''^; 
The  preservation  of  order  in  Tulane  University  is 

*  Article  VII  of  the  Articles  of  Agreement  between  the  Faculty 
and  Students  of  Bowdoin  College  for  the  Administration  of  Jus- 
tice, adopted  June  1,  1894. 

f  See  Article  VI  of  the  Agreement.  The  Bowdoin  jury  con- 
sists of  one  member  from  each  undergraduate  class,  one  member 
from  each  chartered  fraternity  of  three  years'  standing,  and  one 
member  from  the  non-fraternity  students. 

X  Smith.  C.  H.  Modern  Bowdoin,  in  The  Congregationalist, 
June  21,  1894. 


STUDENT  SOCIETIES  IN  MODERN  PERIOD.    267 

handed  over  to  the  officers  of  the  four  college  classes. 
The  time  and  place  of  the  election  of  class  officers  are 
specified  by  the  faculty,  and  in  case  the  class  refuses  to 
elect,  the  president  of  the  college  may  appoint.  The 
entire  body  of  class  officers  constitute  an  academic 
board  with  the  senior  president  as  ex-ofpcio  president, 
the  junior  president  as  ex-officio  vice-president,  and  the 
sophomore  president  as  ex-officio  secretary.  The  aca- 
demic board  has  recognisance  of  all  cases  brought  before 
them  by  class  officers  and  matters  touching  the  general 
discipline  and  welfare  of  the  students.  They  report 
their  findings  to  the  faculty  with  necessary  recom- 
mendations. A  long  list  of  prohibitions  dealing  with  a 
great  variety  of  offences,  such  as  smoking  on  the 
campus,  and  entering  drinking  saloons,  follow  in  the 
handbook.* 

Chicago,  Pennsylvania,  and  Vanderbilt  have  forms 
of  student  self-government,  the  operation  of  which  is 
confined  to  certain  dormitories.  The  students  in  each 
house  of  the  dormitories  at  Pennsylvania  elect  one 
of  their  number  as  representative;  these  representa- 
tives form  a  board  which  meets  regularly  and  acts  with 
the  parietal  committee  of  the  faculty  in  matters  con- 
cerning the  order  and  comfort  of  those  in  the  houses. 
Every  group  of  six  or  more  students  living  together  as 
an  organization  at  the  University  of  Chicago  is  organ- 
ized as  a  house  with  a  set  of  officers.  Each  house  has 
a  head,  appointed  by  the  president  of  the  university;  a 
chancellor,  chosen  from  the  faculty  by  the  students  in 
the  house;  and  a  house  committee,  elected  by  the  resi- 

*  Student's  Handbook,  Tulane  University  of  Louisiana,  p.  2. 
The  handbook  contains  this  somewhat  naive  statement  from  the 
faculty :  "  The  classes  should  select  representatives  who  enjoy  the 
confidence  of  their  comrades,  and  whose  influence  on  them  would, 
on  any  occasion  of  anticipated  excitement,  be  strong  enough  to 
allay  feeling  and  prevent  disturbance." 


268  STUDENT  LIFE  AND  CUSTOMS. 

dent  students.  Each  house  is  governed  by  a  body  of 
rules  adopted  by  a  two-thirds  vote  of  the  members  of 
the  house  and  approved  by  the  university  council.  In 
1898  there  were  twenty  houses,  eight  of  which  were 
fraternity  chapters,  the  remaining  twelve  being  dormi- 
tories on  a  small  scale. 

The  four  different  forms  of  student  self-govern- 
ment which  we  have  described  were  all  intended  to  deal 
primarily  with  discipline  and  only  incidentally  with 
general  student  activities.  The  student-body  organiza- 
tion which  has  recently  become  popular  in  the  West, 
aims,  on  the  other  hand,  to  unify  and  make  representa- 
tive all  student  interests.  No  organization  bearing  the 
college  name  shall  be  a  close  corporation  or  possess  an 
exclusive  membership;  all  college  societies  must  be 
equally  open  to  the  various  elements  of  their  univer- 
sity constituency  who  have  the  requisite  qualifications 
for  membership.  The  scheme  of  centralization  and 
control  which  such  a  theory  necessitates  has  been 
worked  out  with  great  detail  and  thoroughness  at  the 
Leland  Stanford  University.  The  outlines  of  this 
scheme  we  now  present. 

Each  year  the  students  elect  by  ballot  a  president 
and  other  executive  officers,  and  seven  members  of  an 
executive  committee;  the  two  corresponding  to  the 
mayor  and  council  of  an  American  municipality.  The 
president  of  the  student  body  is  ex-officio  chairman  of  the 
executive  committee  which  exercises  control  of  the  gen- 
eral policy  of  all  student  concerns,  but  supervises  most 
closely  the  athletic  organizations,  and  the  musical  and 
debating  clubs.  Perhaps  the  most  important  officer  of 
the  administration  is  the  salaried  treasurer,  who  must 
be  a  graduate,  and  has  the  financial  management  of 
every  game  or  exhibition  given  by  an  undergraduate 
organization  of  the  university.  In  fact,  centralization 
has  been  in  direct  ratio  to  the  money  interests  involved ; 


STUDENT  SOCIETIES  IN  MODERN  PERIOD.    269 

the  operations  of  the  athletic  teams  and  musical  clubs 
with  their  large  outlays  are  closely  watched  and  eon- 
trolled  by  the  central  authorities.  Other  organizations 
practically  manage  their  own  affairs  and  are  never  in- 
terfered with.* 

Technical  athletic  questions  are  left  to  an  athletic 
committee  of  seven,  which  has  only  power  to  recom- 
mend, and  makes  no  appropriations.  The  athletic  ele- 
ment has  at  times  fought  for  a  separate  athletic  associa- 
tion and  predicted  dire  results  from  student-body  con- 
trol. The  athletic  management  seems  to  be  neither 
better  nor  worse  than  in  other  colleges  where  the  under- 
graduate element  predominates.  (Leland  Stanford  Uni- 
versity is  a  recent  foundation,  and  as  yet  has  had  no  con- 
siderable body  of  graduates.)  The  financial  manage- 
ment has  greatly  improved  under  centralized  control. 
Here,  as  elsewhere  in  the  administration  of  the  system, 
the  student-body  officials  must  exercise  due  caution,  be- 
cause at  any  time  it  is  possible  for  a  member  to  appeal 
from  the  president  and  executive  committee  to  a  mass 
meeting  of  the  students,  who  may  overrule  the  action  of 
their  representatives.! 

*  The  organizations  over  which  the  president  and  executive 
committee  exercise  control,  in  addition  to  the  regular  athletic 
teams,  are  the  following :  The  Palo  Alto  (college  daily).  Sequoia 
(college  weekly),  Students'  Guild  (charity  dispensary),  Glee,  Man- 
dolin, and  Banjo  Clubs,  Orchestra,  Women's  Athletic  Association, 
Tennis,  Gymnasium,  and  Fencing  Clubs,  Sword  and  Sandals  (dra- 
matic club),  and  the  Debating  League.  The  constitutions  of  these 
societies,  as  well  as  of  the  associated  students,  were  published  by 
the  executive  committee  in  1896. 

f  The  present  constitution  of  the  associated  students  is  a  slow 
growth.  As  first  organized  in  1891,  the  student  body  gave  little 
power  to  its  chief  officials,  and  the  real  authority  was  lodged  in 
numerous  boards  which  were  elected  from  the  different  classes 
and  responsible  to  no  body  in  particular.  Owing  to  newness  of 
the  university  and  consequent  lack  of  traditions,  the  special  boards 


270  STUDENT  LIFE  AND   CUSTOMS. 

While  the  experience  with  this  highly  centralized 
form  of  student  control  has  been  brief,  yet  on  the 
whole  it  has  been  satisfactory.  Not  only  has  imme- 
diate efficiency  been  gained,  but  a  wider  and  more  zeal- 
ous interest  in  their  own  affairs  has  arisen  among  the 
students.  Critics  of  the  scheme  have  called  attention 
to  the  fact  that  much  time  is  spent  in  voting  and  elec- 
tioneering, and  that  doubtful  methods  of  political  ma- 
nipulation are  not  uncommon.  These  evils  are  undoubt- 
edly visible ;  and  as  society  is  at  present  constituted  they 
are  likely  to  be  found  in  any  plan  which  gives  real 
power  to  the  students.  As  a  counterpoise  of  these,  we 
must  recognise  the  existence  of  public  sentiment  which 
prevents  excesses  and  favours  a  sane  spirit  of  com- 
promise. 

We  may  fairly  conclude  that  the  majority  of  the 
self-governing  plans  have  been  moderate  successes; 
they  have  not  revolutionized  discipline,  nor  changed 
the  character  of  the  American  youth,  but  they  intro- 
duced a  certain  sense  of  responsibility  among  the  under- 
graduates; they  have  promoted  harmony  between  stu- 
dent and  professor,  helping  the  one  to  attain  a  greater 
measure  of  self-discipline,  and  relieving  the  other  of 

fell  into  the  hands  of  cliques,  and  in  some  cases  unfit  men  were 
chosen  for  responsible  positions  like  managership  of  teams.  The 
officials  who  had  athletics  in  their  charge  were  in  many  cases 
prodigal  of  money  and  careless  in  business  methods.  The  first 
important  move  in  the  direction  of  efficiency  was  made  in  1895, 
and  provided  for  the  election  of  a  salaried  graduate  treasurer. 
The  separate  boards  were  abolished,  and  their  functions  added  to 
those  of  the  central  executive  committee.  To  insure  publicity 
the  constitutions  and  accounts  of  all  college  organizations  were 
published.  A  year  later  the  central  financial  control  was  ex- 
tended to  the  musical  clubs.  For  details,  see  History  of  the  Stu- 
dent Body,  by  the  writer,  in  the  Stanford  Sequoia,  April  22,  1898, 
vol.  vii.  ■^ 


STUDENT  SOCIETIES  IN  MODERN  PERIOD.    271 

burdensome  duties.  The  success  of  these  experiments 
has  been  by  no  means  uniform.  In  some  colleges  they 
have  fallen  dead  (Xorthwestern) ;  in  others  (Harvard), 
finding  no  cases  coming  under  their  jurisdiction,  the 
student  legislators  have  endeavoured  to  manufacture 
them  and  have  become  promoters  of  discord  rather  than 
harmony.  Their  success  has  usually  been  proportioned 
to  the  tact  and  wisdom  of  the  authorities  with  whom 
they  have  dealt.  These  student  self-governing  bodies 
must  be  regarded  as  incidental  rather  than  essential 
creations  of  the  American  student  spirit.  Many  of  the 
most  representative  colleges  have  been  without  them. 
They  do  not  belong  to  the  class  of  great  representative 
student  institutions  with  the  class  organization,  the  de- 
bating society,  the  fraternity,  and  the  athletic  club. 

§  6.  Eeligious  and  Political  Organizations  op 
Students  in  the  Modern  Period. 

The  modern  period  has  witnessed  a  complete 
change  in  the  methods  and  organization  of  the  student 
religious  societies.  The  earlier  praying  circles  and  so- 
cieties of  inquiry  were  intended  as  aids  to  the  devotion 
of  their  members;  they  were  simply  prayer-meeting  as- 
sociations. The  societies  in  one  college  had  no  rela- 
tions, formal  or  otherwise,  with  those  elsewhere.  The 
organization  which  in  the  present  generation  has  taken 
their  place — the  Students'  Young  Men's  Christian  As- 
sociation— is  characterized  by  advanced  methods  and 
highly  organized  machinery.  It  also  gives  much  atten- 
tion to  the  social  side  of  college  life.  The  old  type  of 
religious  society  still  persists  in  the  denominational  or- 
ganizations, like  the  St.  Paul's  Society  of  Harvard  and 
Princeton  (Protestant  Episcopal),  the  Catholic  Club  of 
Harvard,  and  the  Oxford  Club  of  Yale  (Methodist  Epis- 
copal). 


272  STUDENT  LIFE  AND  CUSTOMS. 

In  the  year  1858  the  first  two  college  Young  Men's 
Christian  Associations  were  organized  at  the  University 
of  Michigan  and  the  University  of  Virginia.  During 
the  two  following  decades  some  twenty-five  associa- 
tions were  formed  in  the  colleges  of  the  United  States 
and  Canada.  Many  of  these  societies  sprang  up  spon- 
taneously and  were  not  connected  with  the  general  as- 
sociation, in  some  cases  hardly  knew  of  each  other's 
existence.  This  state  of  affairs  continued  until  1877, 
when  the  representatives  of  twenty-one  colleges  met  in 
convention  at  Louisville,  Kentucky,  and  organized  the 
students'  division  of  the  general  Young  Men's  Christian 
Association.  A  college  secretary  was  appointed  and  or- 
ganized propaganda  work  undertaken  for  the  first  time. 
The  growth  of  the  student  division  has  been  rapid. 
From  twenty-six  associations,  with  thirteen  hundred 
members  in  1877,  the  collegiate  branch  had  come  to 
number  in  1895  four  hundred  and  seventy-five  societies 
with  thirty  thousand  members.* 

The  leadership  and  supervision  of  the  college  Young 
Men's  Christian  Association  fall  to  five  general  secre- 
taries, who  spend  the  greater  portion  of  their  time  in 
travelling  about  from  one  college  to  another,  establish- 
ing new  associations,  delivering  addresses,  conferring 
Vi^ith  the  local  leaders  in  regard  to  the  best  methods  of 
work,  and  holding  conferences  for  the  training  of  young 
men  in  the  service  of  the  church.  Some  of  these  con- 
ferences are  local,  bringing  together  delegations  from 
colleges  of  a  certain  restricted  section;  others  aim  at 
training  particular  officials,  like  the  presidential  confer- 
ences held  in  Pennsylvania,  Ohio,  and  Missouri;  a  third 
class  take  the   form  of  student   summer   conferences 

*  The  Intercollegiate  Movement,  a  pamphlet,  p.  6.  The  Young 
Men's  Christian  Association  has  not  in  all  cases  located  its  col- 
lege branches  in  institutions  of  a  distinctly  superior  grade.  Many 
normal  schools  and  secondary  schools  have  regular  branches. 


STUDENT  SOCIETIES  IN  MODERN  PERIOD.    273 

which  prepare  men  for  the  different  departments  of  the 
association,  sucli  as  Bible  study  and  foreign  missions.* 
Tlie  Young  Men^s  Christian  Association  publishes  a 
large  number  of  pamphlets  and  one  magazine  devoted  to 
Christian  activity  in  colleges.  The  college  department 
of  the  Young  Women's  Christian  Association  is  mod- 
elled on  the  college  Young  Men's  Christian  Association, 
and  its  branches  are  much  more  strongly  supported  than 
those  of  the  Young  Men's  Christian  Association. 

The  local  college  association  meets  weekly  for  de- 
votional exercises;  in  some  institutions  this  meeting 
takes  the  form  of  a  public  gathering  in  the  chapel;  in 
others  the  men  gather  together  in  a  comrade's  room  for 
an  hour  or  so  some  evening  in  the  week.  At  times, 
speakers  from  a  distance,  usually  clergymen,  or  Young 
Men's  Christian  Association  secretaries,  are  introduced. 
In  addition  to  these  devotional  meetings,  the  modern 
association  exercises  numerous  other  functions;  it  is- 
sues a  handbook  of  instructions  to  freshmen,  cares  for 
students  in  illness  or  distress,  finds  positions  for  the 
poor,  and  offers  courses  in  Bible  study  to  all  who  care 
to  take  them.  In  many  colleges  the  Yoimg  Men's 
Christian  Association  gives  a  yearly  reception  to  fresh- 
men at  the  beginning  of  the  first  term. 

The  proportion  of  students  belonging  to  the  Young 
Men's  Christian  Association  and  participating  in  its 
work  varies  greatly  with  the  different  colleges.  In  a 
small  denominational  college  in  a  country  town  or 
small  city,  like  Bates  College,  Maine,  two  thirds  of  the 
students  may  belong,  and  half  of  them  take  part;  where- 
as in  a  large  university  located  in  a  metropolis  not  more 
than  ten  per  cent  of  the  students  sometimes  connect 
themselves  with  the  college  religious  society.    Of  course, 

*  For  an  account  of  the  work  of  the  secretaries  and  conferences, 
see  Year  Book  of  the  Young  Men's  Christian  Association  of  North 
America,  1897,  pp.  24-26. 
18 


274  STUDENT  LIFE  AND  CUSTOMS. 

in  such  an  institution  the  membership  of  the  Young 
Men^s  Christian  Association  by  no  means  represents  the 
strength  of  the  active  Christian  element,  as  many  stu- 
dents prefer  to  work  in  the  churches.  The  Young 
Men's  Christian  Association  handbook  reports  a  mem- 
bership of  25,284  students  in  415  colleges  which  con- 
tained 105,051  male  students,  making  the  approximate 
ratio  one  in  four.*  The  same  colleges  report  40,081 
students  who  are  members  of  Protestant  evangelical 
churches. 

During  the  last  fifteen  years  many  of  the  strongest 
local  branches  have  erected  college  association  build- 
ings. By  1895  twenty-one  such  buildings,  costing 
more  than  four  hundred  thousand  dollars,  had  been 
constructed.  The  associations  of  Yale,  Cornell,  and 
Princeton  led  in  this  movement.  The  existence  of  a 
building  set  apart  for  this  purpose  is  said  to  render  the 
work  of  the  local  society  more  permanent,  and  to  give 
the  association  a  much  higher  standing  in  the  student 
community.  In  colleges  without  facilities  for  physical 
training  a  portion  of  the  structure  is  utilized  for 
gymnasium  purposes.  "  Everywhere  the  possession  of 
a  building  prepares  the  way  for  stronger  organization 
and  more  efficient  methods.''!  The  emphasis  placed 
upon  this  material  agency  indicates  a  tendency  to  place 
a  large  and  ever-increasing  reliance  on  physical  and 
mechanical  agencies.  The  machinery  of  organization 
is  everywhere  brought  to  the  front  by  the  Young  Men's 

*  Fifty  branches  sent  no  statistics.  The  reader  need  hardly 
be  reminded  again  that  the  classification  of  normal  schools  and 
secondary  schools  as  colleges  to  a  certain  extent  destroys  the  va- 
lidity of  these  figures. 

f  See  pamphlet  by  John  R.  Mott,  College  Young  Men's  Chris- 
tian Association  Buildings  (New  York,  1895),  for  a  description  of 
the  buildings  erected  up  to  that  time,  and  for  a  consensus  of  opin- 
ion from  college  officials  as  to  their  usefulness. 


STUDENT  SOCIETIES  IX  MODERN   PERIOD.     275 

Christian  Association,  and  in  some  colleges  it  would 
seem  that  a  disproportionate  amount  of  time  and  energy 
is  expended  in  making  the  machinery  go. 

In  the  last  ten  years,  American  ideals  and  methods 
of  organization  in  this  field  have  been  transplanted  to 
Europe.  The  \Yorld^s  Student  Christian  Federation, 
consisting  of  eleven  different  religious  organizations,  has 
been  formed  largely  through  the  efforts  of  the  American 
association.  Delegates  from  these  national  societies 
have  met  in  convention  at  Vadstena,  Sweden,  in  1895, 
and  Eisenach,  Germany,  in  1898.*  Next  to  the  United 
States  and  Canada,  Great  Britain  and  the  Scandinavian 
lands  support  the  new  movement  with  greatest  energy. 
The  Federation  hopes  to  keep  the  various  higher  in- 
stitutions of  the  world  in  communication  with  each 
other  and  to  increase  the  practical  efficiency  of  Chris- 
tian propaganda  in  quarters  where  it  had  been  per- 
mitted to  languish.  Both  in  Europe  and  America  the 
new  movement  has  sought  to  promote  Bible  study  and 
interest  in  social  problems  in  addition  to  its  own  field 
of  devotional  activity.  "  Comparing  the  student  Chris- 
tian movement  in  Europe  with  that  in  America,  we  find 

*  The  members  of  the  Federation,  with  the  date  of  their  ad- 
mission, are  as  follows : 

American  and  Canadian  Y.  M.  C.  A 1895 

Australasian  Student  Christian  Union 1896 

British  College  Christian  Union 1895 

College  Y.  M.  C.  A.  of  China 1896 

Student  Christian  Movement  of  France,  the  Nether- 
lands, and  Switzerland 1898 

German  Christian  Students'  Alliance 1895 

Intercollegiate  Y.  M.  C.  A.  of  India  and  Ceylon 1896 

Students'  Y.  M.  C.  A.  of  Japan 1897 

Scandinavian  University  Christian  Movement 1895 

Students'  Christian  Association  of  South  Africa. . .  1896 

Students'  Christian  Movement  in  Mission  Lands. . .  1895 


276  STUDENT  LIFE  AND  CUSTOMS. 

in  Europe  stronger  thought,  in  America  greater  prac- 
tical efficiency."* 

We  have  previously  referred  to  the  denominational 
societies  which  supplement  the  Young  Men's  Christian 
Association  in  some  of  the  large  Eastern  colleges,  Yale 
possesses  a  Berkeley  Association  (Episcopalian),  an  Ox- 
ford Club  (Methodist),  and  a  Catholic  Club.  At  Har- 
vard the  Unitarians  are  represented  in  addition  to  the 
three  denominations  having  organizations  at  Yale. 
The  five  religious  associations  of  Harvard  are  known 
as  the  United  Eeligious  Societies,  and  at  times  issue  a 
call  for  public  meetings  under  their  joint  auspices. f 
Denominational  clubs  and  societies,  however,  are  the 
rare  exception;  there  are  probably  not  more  than 
thirty  of  them  in  the  country.  The  student  members 
of  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church  most  frequently 
organize  separate  associations.  The  Catholic  youth  are 
largely  educated  in  church  colleges,  where  they  are 
formed  into  sodalities  by  the  priest  in  charge. 

In  the  larger  universities  the  Christian  spirit  finds 
many  different  ways  of  expressing  itself.  The  forms  of 
activity  vary  with  the  college,  each  institution  impress- 
ing something  of  its  own  individuality  on  the  religious 
societies.  To  give  the  reader  a  sense  of  this  va- 
riety it  will  be  necessary  to  sketch  the  main  features  of 
religious  work  at  a  few  typical  centres  of  learning.  We 
have  chosen,  as  representative  institutions  of  the  differ- 
ent classes.  Harvard,  Yale,  and  the  University  of  Min- 
nesota. 

The  Christian  association  of  Harvard  is  the  centre 

*  From  James  B.  Reynolds.  Facts  and  Forces  in  the  Religious 
Life  of  the  Universities  of  Europe,  p.  25,  in  a  pamphlet  entitled 
The  Christian  Movement  in  the  Universities  of  America,  Europe, 
and  Asia. 

f  See  Harvard  Graduate  Magazine,  vol.  iv,  p.  416,  for  notice  of 
such  a  meeting  on  the  Armenian  question. 


STUDENT  SOCIETIES  IX  3I0DERN   PERIOD.     277 

in  the  university  for  men  of  religious  feeling  and  posi- 
tive belief.  "  It  is  inclined  to  be  broad  in  its  interpre- 
tation of  positive  belief,"  and  the  spirit  of  critical  in- 
quiry, which  marks  Harvard  thinking  in  all  fields,  is  by 
no  means  absent  here.  The  association  invites  all  to 
fellowship  with  it,  "  even  those  who  may  at  times  feel 
that  they  have  little  more  in  common  with  us  than  their 
doubts.*^  *  Two  meetings  are  held  each  week — one  on 
Sunday  evening,  which  is  largely  of  a  devotional  charac- 
ter; and  another  on  Thursday  evening,  which  provides 
time  for  more  critical  biblical  discussion,  and  is  ad- 
dressed by  professors,  university  preachers,  or  leaders  in 
Christian  activity.  Further  critical  study  is  carried  on 
in  Bible  classes.  Monthly  socials  with  entertainment 
by  the  college  musical  societies  afford  social  diversion  to 
a  certain  class  of  students. 

Apart  from  devotions  and  study,  the  chief  inter- 
est of  the  Harvard  religious  organizations  lies  in  par- 
ticipation in  outside  philanthropy  and  charitable  work. 
Eealizing  the  need  of  wise  charity  administrators,  the 
five  religious  societies  of  the  university  provided  a 
clearing  house  for  philanthropy  and  benevolence  which 
receives  applications  for  charity  and  endeavours  to  fit 
men  to  the  work.  A  charity  expert  was  hired  who 
handled  the  cases  directly.  "  The  effort  is  made  to  ap- 
preciate the  whole  make-up  of  the  man.  His  age,  his 
tastes,  his  home,  his  college  standing,  his  future  plans — 
all  these  help  to  determine  the  kind  of  work  best  suited 
to  his  ability.  A  teacher  is  sent  to  lecture  to  working- 
men;  a  AYesterner  was  given  a  knowledge  of  the  organi- 
zation of  the  Boston  charities;  medical  students  are 
sent  to  children's  hospitals."  f 

*  Harvard  Graduate  Magazine,  vol.  i,  pp.  608,  609. 
f  Calkins,  Raymond.     Volunteer  Charity  Work,  Harvard  Grad- 
uate Magazine,  vol.  iii,  p.  327. 


278  STUDENT  LIFE  AND  CUSTOMS. 

Another  unique  charity  managed  by  Harvard  stu- 
dents is  the  Prospect  Union  at  Cambridgeport,  which 
serves  as  a  university  extension  centre.  Early  in  the 
nineties  it  had  a  membership  of  two  hundred  working- 
men  and  clerks,  who  were  instructed  by  a  score  or  more 
of  students.  Besides  the  regular  course  of  instruction, 
the  Union  provided  a  public  lecture  every  Wednesday 
evening,  which  lectures  were  delivered  chiefly  by  the 
members  of  the  Harvard  faculty.  By  means  of  these 
instrumentalities  the  Union  endeavoured  to  bring  col- 
lege men  and  wage  earners  into  mutual  sympathy;  and 
in  consequence  the  organization  was  consistently  demo- 
cratic in  its  principles  and  methods.  Its  expenses  were 
provided  for  by  light  fees  and  by  concerts  given  by  the 
Harvard  musical  societies.* 

The  Young  Men's  Christian  Association  of  Yale  is 
distinctly  more  aggressive  and  evangelical  than  its  con- 
temporary at  Harvard.  Its  object  is  forceful  action 
rather  than  clear,  critical  thinking.  This  aggressiveness 
is  seen  in  the  methods  used  to  reach  the  incoming  fresh- 
man class  each  year.  The  Association  aims  to  place  be- 
fore the  newcomers  "  an  attractive  form  of  Christianity 
and  to  render  them  every  possible  service  which  will 
render  the  new  life  less  strange  and  place  the  possibility 

*  For  full  account  of  the  Prospect  Union,  see  Harvard  Grad- 
uate Magazine,  vol.  i,  p.  462.  The  Prospect  Union  is  thus  de- 
scribed by  one  of  the  characters  in  C.  M.  Flandrau's  Harvard 
Episodes:  "The  Prospect  Union,"  explained  Haydock,  in  the  de- 
liberate way  that  was  often  taken  seriously,  "  is  a  most  admirable 
educational  institution  carried  on  in  Cambridgeport  by  the  Har- 
vard undergraduates.  It  is  elaborately  designed  to  make  the 
lower  classes — the  laboring  man — dissatisfied  with  his  station  in 
life.  I  am  proud  to  say  that  I  once  went  there  every  Friday 
night  for  six  months  to  teach  two  bricklayers,  three  dry-goods 
clerks,  and  a  nigger  how  to  appreciate  the  beautiful  works  of  the 
late  Mr.  Keats.    I  spoiled  their  lives,  and  they  all  love  me." 


STUDENT  SOCIETIES  IN  MODERN  PERIOD.    279 

of  remaining  in  college  within  the  reach  of  those  in 
financial  straits."  *  Dwight  Hall,  the  Young  Men's 
Christian  Association  headquarters,  is  thrown  open  a 
week  before  the  opening  of  the  college  session,  and 
every  assistance  is  afforded  the  freshman  in  the  way  of 
finding  suitable  boarding  places,  and  in  securing  em- 
ployment for  those  who  have  their  own  way  to  make. 
A  committee  of  fifteen,  chosen  from  those  who  have 
been  identified  with  religious  work  in  the  preparatory 
schools,  is  made  responsible  for  their  comrades,  who  are 
divided  into  squads  of  twenty-five  or  thirty  for  this  pur- 
pose. The  importance  of  the  devotional  study  of  the 
Bible  is  emphasized  by  a  series  of  meetings,  and  men 
are  encouraged  to  engage  actively  in  some  form  of 
Christian  effort. 

The  religious  services  of  the  week  are  two  in  num- 
ber, as  at  Harvard,  but  differently  arranged.  A  general 
gathering  of  all  the  students  takes  place  on  Sunday 
evening — a  meeting  formerly  addressed  by  such  men  as 
Drummond,  Moody,  Gordon,  and  McKenzie.  On  Sun- 
day noon  the  religiously  disposed  members  of  each  class 
gather  together  for  a  class  prayer  meeting.  Each  of 
the  three  upper  classes  elects  four  deacons,  to  whom  is 
delegated  the  entire  management  of  the  religious  inter- 
ests of  the  class.  The  ablest  and  most  prominent  mem- 
bers of  the  class  are  said  to  be  frequently  elected  to  this 
office. t  The  deacons  from  all  classes  form  a  board  of 
governors  for  the  Young  Men's  Christian  Association. 
The  Yale  association  provides  workers  for  the  missions, 
speakers  for  out-of-door  and  jail  meetings,  conducts  a 
boys'  club,  and  manages  a  special  mission  of  its  own  in 

*  From  Work  for  the  Enterins:  Class  at  Yale,  by  Henry  B. 
Wright,  general  secretary  of  the  Yale  Young  Men's  Christian  As- 
sociation, in  The  Intercollegian,  vol.  xxi,  n.  1,  p.  18  (October,  1898), 

\  Welch  and  Camp.    Yale,  p.  60. 


280  STUDENT  LIFE  AND  CUSTOMS. 

one  of  the  tenement-house  districts.  Yale  has  sup- 
ported Moody  in  his  Northfield  work  more  strongly 
than  any  other  college  in  the  country^  and  trains  many 
men  for  the  foreign  mission  field. 

The  somewhat  ostentatious  aggressiveness  and 
strength  of  the  religious  element  in  the  university  led 
to  a  reaction  in  the  early  nineties.  The  disaffected 
accused  the  Young  Men's  Christian  Association,  or 
Dwight  Hall  element,  of  endeavouring  to  control  class 
politics.  One  entire  class  was  divided  into  two  well- 
marked  factions,  known  respectively  as  Dwight  Hall  and 
Holy  Poker.    This  antagonism  has  since  passed  away.* 

The  control  of  the  Young  Men's  Christian  Associa- 
tion of  the  University  of  Minnesota  is  vested  in  a  board 
of  directors  consisting  of  four  members  of  the  faculty, 
three  business  men,  two  alumni,  and  two  undergradu- 
ates. Such  an  arrangement  secures  more  stability  than 
is  possible  in  a  purely  undergraduate  association.  The 
board  of  directors  employ  a  general  secretary,  who 
spends  his  entire  time  in  the  work  of  the  society.  The 
student  association  works  through  sixteen  committees, 
the  enumeration  of  which  will  give  some  idea  of  the 
scope  of  their  activities.  They  are  the  committees  on 
religious  meetings,  reception,  membership,  Bible  study, 
missions,  invitation,  finance,  music,  educational  depart- 
ment, employment  bureau,  loan  library,  reading  room, 
buildings  and  attractions,  intercollegiate  relations,  care 
of  the  sick,  and  handbook,  f 

In  a  State  university  the  entire  province  of  religious 
instruction  is  avoided  in  order  to  prevent  the  possibility 
of  sectarian  entanglements.  The  Young  Men's  Chris- 
tian Association  endeavours  to  meet  this  need  by  offer- 

*  Welch  and  Camp.     Yale,  p.  61. 

f  The  Student's  Handbook  of  the  University  of  Minnesota,  p. 
14,  Minneapolis,  1898. 


STUDENT  SOCIETIES  IX  MODERN   PERIOD.    28 1 

ing  courses  in  the  study  of  the  Bible.  A  course  on  the 
Life  of  Christ,  based  on  Sharmon's  Studies  in  the 
Life  of  Christ  and  Burton's  Harmony  of  the  Gospels, 
is  offered  to  freshmen.  The  sophomores  study  the  life 
of  Paul  and  the  apostolic  Church,  and  the  seniors  Old 
Testament  history,  while  there  are  more  special  classes 
in  the  study  of  missions  and  in  training  for  evangel- 
istic work.  The  young  women's  association  affords 
similar  opportunities  to  the  women  of  the  university. 

The  association  conducts  an  employment  bureau  for 
needy  students.  Statistics  during  the  year  1897-'98 
showed  that  about  fifty  students  were  assisted  to  perma- 
nent positions,  and  many  more  furnished  with  odd  jobs. 
A  loan  fund  was  established,  made  up  of  contributions 
from  students  and  friends  of  the  Young  Men's  Chris- 
tian Association,  upon  which  the  association  paid  three 
per  cent  interest.  Needy  students  may  borrow  small 
amounts  from  the  loan  fund  at  reasonable  rates.  Free 
classes  in  the  preparatory  subjects  are  also  maintained 
by  the  association;  these  courses  enable  the  freshmen 
to  make  up  their  entrance  conditions,  and  to  review 
such  subjects  as  beginning  Greek,  Greek  grammar,  Yir- 
gil,  and  algebra. 

Students  from  the  local  association  join  those  from 
other  colleges  of  the  State  in  making  evangelistic  tours 
among  the  small  towns  in  bands  of  five,  under  the  di- 
rection of  the  State  Young  Men's  Christian  Association. 
The  expenses  of  such  students  are  paid,  enabling  them 
to  devote  all  their  time  to  active  service.  In  the  winter 
of  1898  eighty  men  went  out  on  such  tours  from  the 
colleges  of  the  State,  twenty-three  of  these  from  the 
State  university;  three  hundred  and  ninety-eight  con- 
versions were  reported.  Before  attempting  such  serv- 
ices, men  are  trained  in  preparatory  Bible  classes.* 

*  Student's  Handbook,  University  of  Minnesota,  p.  20 


282  STUDENT  LIFE  AND  CUSTOMS. 

The  student  volunteer  movement  for  foreign  mis- 
sions has  been  closely  connected  with  the  college  re- 
ligious societies  and  has  been  largely  instrumental  in 
arousing  them  to  more  aggressive  action.  Interest  in 
missions  before  the  rise  of  this  movement  had  been 
somewhat  sporadic  in  colleges.  Early  in  the  century 
Williams  College  and  Andover  Theological  Seminary 
were  the  seats  of  an  intense  missionary  ferment  on  the 
part. of  a  few  students.  In  1883  a  revival  at  Princeton 
led  to  the  formation  of  a  foreign  missionary  society 
there.* 

In  the  early  eighties  the  missionary  boards  experi- 
enced considerable  difficulty  in  securing  well-trained 
candidates  for  the  foreign  stations.  It  was  a  transition 
period;  the  heroic  age  of  missionary  endeavour  seemed 
to  have  come  to  an  end;  the  lofty  exaltation  which  came 
from  the  prospect  of  martyrdom  and  meeting  unknown 
dangers  could  no  longer  be  depended  upon  to  draw  men 
into  the  service;  the  old  Puritanic  motif  of  saving  the 
souls  of  the  heathen  from  damnation  was  losing  its 
force,  while  the  newer  desire  to  elevate  the  condition  of 
primitive  peoples  had  not  come  to  the  front.  D.  L. 
Moody  saw  the  needs  of  the  situation,  and  invited  dele- 
gates from  the  Christian  associations  of  the  colleges  to 
meet  at  Northfield  for  a  summer  conference  in  1886. 
The  enthusiasm  of  the  convention  accomplished  the  de- 
sired result;  out  of  two  hundred  and  fifty-one  delegates 
at  the  conference,  an  even  hundred  volunteered  for  the 
foreign  service.  The  principles  of  the  movement  and 
the  form  of  organization  were  evolved  in  the  next  two 
or  three  years.  » 

The  student  volunteer  movement  aims  to  agitate,  to 

*  Beach,  Harlan  P.  Historical  Sketch  of  the  Student  Volun- 
teer Movement,  in  The  Student  Volunteer,  vol.  vi,  No.  3,  p.  37 
(December,  1897). 


STUDENT  SOCIETIES  IN  MODERN  PERIOD.    283 

stimulate,  to  inform,  rather  than  to  act  as  a  missionary 
board.  "  It  has  never  sent  out  a  missionary  and  never 
expects  to  ";  it  is  simply  a  recruiting  agency  and  works 
in  entire  accord  with  the  missionary  societies  of  the 
churches,  and  has  received  the  indorsement  of  the  lead- 
ing denominations.  Its  function  has  been  to  arouse 
an  interest  in  missions  and  to  enrol  a  sufficient  number 
of  well-trained  candidates  to  meet  the  successive  de- 
mands of  the  various  mission  boards  of  Xorth  America. 
The  management  of  the  movement  includes  all  colleges, 
normal  schools,  and  professional  schools  within  the 
scope  of  its  operations;  but  no  members  are  enrolled 
from  schools  of  a  secondary  grade. 

The  control  of  the  movement  is  invested  in  an  ex- 
ecutive committee  composed  of  the  official  representa- 
tives of  the  four  great  student  organizations  of  Xorth 
America:  the  Intercollegiate  Young  Men's  Christian 
Association,  the  Intercollegiate  Young  Women's  Chris- 
tian Association,  the  American  Inter-Seminary  Mission- 
ary Alliance,  and  the  Canadian  Intercollegiate  Mission- 
ary Alliance.  Five  travelling  secretaries  are  employed 
who  spend  their  time  in  visits  from  college  to  college. 
In  the  summer  institutes  held  by  the  Young  Men's 
Christian  Association,  the  volunteer  movement  con- 
ducts a  missionary  institute  which  trains  leaders  for 
volunteer  bands,  mission-study  classes,  and  other  mis- 
sionary activities.  Every  four  years,  or  once  in  each 
student  generation,  the  movement  holds  a  large  conven- 
tion which  brings  together  thousands  of  delegates  from 
all  the  colleges  of  the  country.  The  executive  commit- 
tee publish  a  monthly  periodical — The  Student  Volun- 
teer— and  a  large  number  of  pamphlets,  a  list  of  which 
will  be  found  in  the  Bibliography. 

The  management  of  the  movement  hope  eventually 
to  have  a  volunteer  band  in  every  American  college  and 
professional  school.     The  local  band  is  composed  only 


284  STUDENT  LIFE  AND  CUSTOMS. 

of  those  students  who  have  voluntarily  pledged  them- 
selves to  the  foreign  mission  cause.  The  volunteer 
band  prepare  themselves  by  a  course  of  study  for  active 
service  and  also  endeavour  to  interest  the  students  of 
the  college  in  missionary  effort.  Experience  has  shown 
that  an  organization  of  this  kind  for  mutual  encourage- 
ment is  necessary.  "  In  institutions  where  the  volun- 
teers have  remained  separate  and  unorganized,  their 
own  interest  has  usually  waned,  the  missionary  spirit 
of  the  students  as  a  whole  has  usually  decreased,  the 
volunteers  have  become  the  object  of  much  criticism, 
and  practically  no  recruits  have  been  enlisted."  *  The 
bands  spend  more  energy  in  practical  propaganda,  such 
as  bringing  in  recruits,  circulating  missionary  litera- 
ture, and  visiting  churches  in  the  interests  of  the  cause, 
than  to  study,  t 

A  perusal  of  their  literature  gives  one  an  impression 
that  they  have  no  very  exact  comprehension  of  the  peda- 
gogical and  anthropological  problems  involved  in  re- 
ligious endeavours  among  primitive  and  alien  peoples. 
It  may  be  said  of  the  entire  movement  that  it  abounds 
in  devotion  and  enthusiasm  rather  than  knowledge. 
Not  that  there  is  anything  fantastic  or  visionary  in  the 
volunteer  methods;  the  common-sense,  business  princi- 
ples which  Mr.  Moody  introduced  into  all  his  enter- 
prises are  found  here  also;  but  there  seems  to  be  no 
adequate  realization  of  the  fact  that  the  evangelization 
of  alien  races  is  a  task  of  almost  infinite  complexity  and 
difficulty. 

The  most  tangible  result  of  the  student  volunteer 
movement  is  found  in  the  large  number  of  candidates 
offering  themselves  to  mission  boards;  there  were  five 

*  Lyon,  D.  Willard.    The  Volunteer  Band,  p.  11. 
f  See  Lyon,  The  Volunteer  Band.  pp.  26-52,  for  a  description 
of  this  work  as  it  should  be  conducted. 


STUDENT  SOCIETIES  IN  MODERN  PERIOD.    285 

in  1898  to  every  one  ten  years  earlier.  By  the  1st  of 
January,  1898,  eleven  hundred  and  seventy-three  vol- 
unteers had  gone  to  the  mission  fields  and  four  thousand 
students  had  pledged  themselves  to  similar  action  when 
their  preparation  was  completed.*  Of  this  number, 
one  third  are  women.  The  resources  of  the  church 
missionary  societies  have  been  strained  to  the  utter- 
most in  the  attempt  to  accommodate  those  who  desired 
to  go,  and  in  the  last  two  or  three  years  have  declined 
many  eligible  candidates.  The  student  volunteer  agi- 
tation has  performed  another  signal  service  in  promot- 
ing the  systematic  study  of  missions.  In  1894,  when 
the  volunteers  for  the  first  time  turned  their  attention 
to  mission-study  classes,  there  were  only  thirty  such 
organizations  in  the  country.  In  three  years  the  num- 
ber increased  to  two  hundred  and  seventeen  classes, 
with  twenty-three  hundred  and  sixty-one  students,  a 
half  of  whom  were  enrolled  volunteers,  f  The  classes 
brought  about  the  accumulation  of  missionary  litera- 
ture in  the  different  college  libraries. 

The  intangible  results  of  the  movement  are  much 
more  difficult  to  follow.  In  many  colleges,  particularly 
certain  State  universities,  there  has  undoubtedly  been 
an  entire  change  of  attitude  on  the  subject  of  missions. 
The  idea  so  prevalent  in  the  eighties  among  under- 
graduates that  all  forms  of  aggressive  religious  endeav- 
our were  superannuated  survivals  of  media^valism,  out 
of  place  in  the  present  enlightened  age,  is  fast  giving 

*  Report  of  the  Executive  Committee  of  the  Student  Volunteer 
Movement,  p.  7,  1898. 

f  Ibid,  p.  6.  The  reader  will  note  that  this  activity  does  not 
meet  the  criticism  expressed  on  the  previous  page.  The  reading 
of  the  lives  of  missionaries  and  hortatory  addresses  is  by  no  means 
a  study  of  the  scientific  problems  involved  in  mission  work,  al- 
though it  is  of  course  fruitful  in  adding  to  the  stock  of  intelligence 
of  the  worker. 


286  STUDENT  LIFE  AND  CUSTOMS. 

way  either  to  appreciation  or  to  acute  dislike.  The 
movement  has  stinmlated  the  churches,  aroused  the  re- 
ligious societies  of  the  colleges  to  their  responsibility, 
and  has  extended  its  influence  to  foreign  countries.  Its 
success  in  the  present  age  in  reviving  the  ideals  of  mili- 
tant Christianity  in  the  same  institutions  that  by  sub- 
jective criticisms  were  undermining  the  foundations  of 
religious  belief,  is  one  of  the  striking  signs  of  the 
complexity  of  modern  social  forces. 


CHAPTER   YI. 

STUDEXT  ORGAXIZATIOXS  IX  AilEEICAX  SECOXDARY 
SCHOOLS. 

Bibliographical  Note. — Xo  adequate  or  comprehensive  treat- 
ment of  the  social  activities  of  secondary  schools  exists  ;  the  litera- 
ture is  fragmentary  and  very  recent ;  however,  some  important 
articles  have  appeared  on  high-school  self-government  in  the 
School  Review.  W.  A.  McAndrew  describes  the  experiment  at 
Pratt  High  School,  Brooklyn  (School  Review,  vol.  v,  p.  456) ; 
C.  W.  French,  that  of  the  Hyde  Park  High  School,  Chicago 
(School  Review,  vol.  vi,  p.  35) ;  and  C.  H.  Thurber  the  condition 
of  affairs  at  Warren,  Pa.  The  constitutions  of  the  respective  self- 
government  corporations  are  given  in  full  in  these  articles.  For 
the  purpose  of  comparison,  the  account  of  self-government  by  the 
pupils  of  the  John  Creerar  Grammar  School,  Chicago,  is  of  value. 
It  is  published  as  Appendix  H  of  the  Report  of  the  Educational 
Commission  of  the  City  of  Chicago.  Henry  W.  Thurston,  of  Chi- 
cago, issued  a  syllabus  on  Training  for  Citizenship  in  the  Public 
Schools,  one  section  of  which  dealt  with  civic  training  through 
student  societies.  The  results  of  this  investigation,  which  are  of 
importance,  are  presented  in  the  School  Review,  vol.  vi,  p.  577. 
Isaac  Sharpless  (School  Review,  vol.  vi,  p.  145)  and  Endicott  Pea- 
body  (School  Review,  vol.  iii,  p.  502)  discuss  the  pros  and  cons  of 
secondary  school  athletics.  Florence  Milner's  School  Manage- 
ment from  the  Side  of  Social  Life  (School  Review,  vol.  vii,  p.  215) 
treats  of  the  relation  of  the  school  to  social  functions. 

The  greater  portion  of  the  information  contained  in  the  fol- 
lowing chapter  was  obtained  from  a  topical  questionnaire  on  Stu- 
dent Life  in  Secondary  Schools,  issued  in  November,  1898,  which 
reads  as  follows  : 

1.  To  what  extent  are  the  following  lines  of  student  activity 
represented  in  your  institution  ?    (a)  Class  system,  ih)  literary  and 

287 


288  STUDENT  LIFE  AND  CUSTOMS. 

debating  society,  (c)  preparatory  school  fraternities,  (d)  athletics, 
(e)  student  body  organizations,  (/)  press,  (g)  miscellaneous. 

2.  Name  any  activities  or  institutions  peculiar  to  students  of 
a  secondary  grade. 

3.  To  what  extent  is  the  student  life  in  your  institution  in- 
fluenced by  college  ideals  ? 

4.  What  difference  have  you  noticed  between  the  same  insti- 
tutions in  colleges  and  preparatory  schools? 

5.  In  what  way  is  student  activity  supervised  or  aided  by  the 
teachers  or  governing  autliority  I 

6.  What  is  your  estimate  as  to  the  value  of  these  institutions 
in  secondary  schools  ? 

Answers  were  obtained  from  forty-one  institutions  of  a  sec- 
ondary grade.  In  most  cases  the  replies  came  from  the  principals, 
in.  a  few  instances  from  either  secretaries  or  teachers.  Of  the 
forty-one  schools,  sixteen  were  academies,  ten  high  schools,  and 
fifteen  normal  schools.  The  great  majority  of  the  normal  schools 
from  which  returns  were  received  are  in  reality  secondary  schools, 
paralleling  the  courses  in  high  schools  and  academies  and  prepar- 
ing students  for  college.  If  the  normal  schools  were  given  over 
largely  or  exclusively  to  professional  training,  their  inclusion  in 
the  list  would  be  indefensible.  The  schools  reporting  represent 
every  grade  of  instruction  and  all  sections  of  the  country,  al- 
though the  large  schools  outnumber  the  smaller  ones,  a  fact  of 
which  account  must  be  made  in  evaluating  the  results.  The  list 
of  schools  reads  as  follows:  Academies— (1)  Phillips  Andover,  (2) 
Phillips  Exeter,  (3)  Friends'  Academy,  New  Bedford,  (4)  Groton 
School,  (5)  Sawin  Academy,  Sherborne,  Mass.,  (6)  Wesleyan  Acad- 
emy, Wilbraham,  (7)  Adelphi  Academy,  Brooklyn,  (8)  Lawrence- 
ville  School,  New  Jersey,  (9)  William  Penn  Charter  School,  Phila- 
delphia, (10)  George  School,  Newton,  Pa.,  (11)  Harry  Hillman 
Academy,  Wilkesbarre,  Pa.,  (12)  Jacob  Tome  Institute,  Port  De- 
posit, Md.,  (13)  Abingdon  Male  Academy,  Virginia,  (14)  Winchell 
Academy,  Evanston  111.,  (15)  Belmont  School,  California,  (16)  St. 
Matthew's  School,  San  Mateo,  Cal.  Tlie  high  schools  were— (17) 
Springfield,  Mass.,  (18)  Lowell  Mass.,  (19)  Gloucester,  Mass.,  (20) 
Cambridge  English  High  School,  Massachusetts,  (21)  Albany, 
N.  Y.,  (22)  Jamestown,  N.  Y.,  (23)  Indianapolis,  Ind.,  (24)  Ash- 
more,  111.,  (25)  Davenport,  la.,  (26)  Iowa  City,  (27)  Sioux  City,  la. 
Normal  schools  were— (28)  Fitchburg,  Mass.,  (29)  Westfield,  Mass., 


STUDENT  LIFE  IX  SECOXDAHY  SCHOOLS.     289 

(.'50)  Worcester,  Mass.,  (31)  Indiana,  Pa.,  (32)  California,  Pa.,  (33) 
Carbondale,  III,  (34)  Cedar  Falls,  la.,  (35)  Mankato,  Minn.,  (36) 
Winona,  Minn.,  (37)  Peru,  Neb.,  (38)  Albion,  Idaho,  (39)  Cheney, 
Washington,  (40)  Chico,  Cal.,  (41)  San  Jose,  Cal. 

Returns  showed  great  differences  between  the  different  types 
of  secondary  schools.  Two  academies  and  one  high  school  re- 
ported the  total  absence  of  student  organizations  of  any  type, 
while  a  number  of  large  public  academies  almost  duplicated  the 
organizations  of  a  vigorous  college.  The  great  majority  of  Ameri- 
can secondary  schools  occupy  a  middle  position,  having  the  typi- 
cal organizations  of  the  college — the  class,  the  debating  society, 
fraternity  and  athletic  association.  These  societies  are  usually 
less  vigorous  than  those  of  the  college,  and  include  in  their  scope 
only  a  minority  of  students. 

For  the  purpose  of  studying  their  student  associa- 
tions, we  may  divide  the  secondary  schools  of  the  coun- 
try into  four  classes:  first,  large  academics  and  fitting 
schools;  second,  large  city  high  schools;  third,  small 
country  high  schools  and  academies;  and  fourth,  nor- 
mal schools. 

Student  life  is  much  the  more  important  element  in 
schools  of  the  first  class.  The  reasons  for  this  superior- 
ity are  clearly  seen;  they  are  boarding  schools,  family 
life  is  eliminated;  the  entire  social  activities  of  the 
pupils  centre  in  the  school.  The  teachers  are  more 
likely  to  be  college  men  and  consequently  more  in  sym- 
pathy with  student  societies,  and  frequently  they  live 
in  the  school  in  charge  of  their  pupils,  which  facilitates 
intercourse.  The  head  master  being  in  many  cases 
vested  with  large  discretionary  power  and  sure  of  his 
position,  is  more  likely  to  take  a  liberal  view  of  his 
functions  than  the  principal  of  a  high  school,  who  is 
often  hampered  by  the  public  sentiment  of  the  com- 
munity, the  whims  of  schoolboys,  and  the  insecurity  of 
his  oifice.  The  evidence  which  we  have  collected  shows 
that  the  head  masters  of  these  schools  value  student  so- 
cieties much  more  highly  than  high-school  ofiicials,  and 
19 


290  STUDENT  LIFE  AND  CUSTOMS. 

view  them  as  a  legitimate  factor  in  training,  and  not  a 
nuisance  to  be  managed  and  abated.  For  these  reasons 
the  best  class  of  academy  and  fitting  schools  have  de- 
veloped a  stronger  esprit  de  corps  than  the  high  schools, 
and  possess  a  much  more  vigorous  community  life;  a 
much  larger  percentage  of  the  boys  take  part  in  the  so- 
cial activities  than  elsewhere.  As  might  be  anticipated 
from  their  close  connection  to  the  colleges,  the  associa- 
tions in  the  academies  and  fitting  schools  closely  ap- 
proximate those  of  the  superior  institutions.  The  list 
of  societies  at  Phillips  Exeter  or  Phillips  Andover  al- 
most duplicates  that  of  Harvard  or  Yale.  Athletics 
are  likely  to  predominate  in  these  schools,  although 
class  spirit  and  organization  are  relatively  much 
stronger  than  elsewhere.  The  debating  societies  are 
usually  weaker  than  in  high  schools  and  normal  schools. 
In  the  city  high  schools  the  students  are  largely 
left  to  their  own  devices.  The  principal  supervises 
them  sufficiently  to  prevent  the  debating  societies  from 
becoming  elements  of  disorder,  and  the  athletics  from 
being  involved  in  scandals  which  would  find  their  way 
to  the  newspapers.  In  a  few  exceptional  cases  the  de- 
bating societies  are  turned  into  something  which  nearly 
approaches  class-room  exercises.  Teachers  are  likely  to 
think  that  they  are  paid  for  teaching  so  many  hours  a 
week,  and  to  resent  any  change  which  looks  like  an  ad- 
ditional demand  on  their  time.  So,  in  general,  the  in- 
itiative rests  with  the  students.  A  small  percentage  of 
the  boys  and  girls  interested  in  public  affairs  gather  to- 
gether for  weekly  discussions;  another  small  percentage 
of  the  physical  elite  form  the  teams  and  athletic  associa- 
tions. The  majority  of  the  students  have  only  the 
training  which  comes  from  two  or  three  class  banquets, 
a  sense  of  proprietorship  in  a  school  paper  which  usu- 
ally excites  more  interest  here  than  in  colleges,  and 
rccasionally  a  students'  association. 


STUDENT  LIFE  IN  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS.      291 

Both  the  athletic  and  debating  societies  stand  in 
need  of  a  vigorous  public  sentiment.  The  temptation 
involved  in  handling  large  sums  of  money  is  often  too 
much  for  the  athletic  manager,  who  is  frequently  a 
bright  boy  from  a  fami''y  where  a  low  sense  of  honour 
prevails.  The  amount  of  financial  crookedness  which 
goes  on  in  connection  with  the  athletics  of  an  average 
American  high  school  would  surprise  the  general  public 
if  known.  There  is  naturally  no  way  of  ascertaining 
the  exact  facts  of  the  case,  as  the  interest  of  the  school 
and  the  parties  implicated  demand  their  suppression. 
These  defalcations  are  due  to  the  absence  of  any  feeling 
of  accountability  or  responsibility,  rather  than  to  in- 
nate depravity.  In  the  contests,  the  spirit  of  competi- 
tion rages  stronger  than  in  the  colleges,  and  more  liber- 
ties are  taken  with  the  proper  standards.  The  debat- 
ing society,  if  all  the  members  are  immature  and  no 
outside  influence  is  felt,  oftentimes  degenerates  in  its 
proceedings  to  mere  v^rangle  and  chicaner}^,  and  is 
more  productive  of  conceit  and  wire-pulling  than  of 
any  more  desirable  products. 

It  is  difficult  to  generalize  respecting  the  small  rural 
academies  and  high  schools;  the  data  at  our  command 
are  too  slight  and  the  variation  too  wide.  Still,  it  is  the 
personal  impression  of  the  writer  that,  so  far  as  formal 
organizations  are  concerned,  their  position  is  in  a  ma- 
jority of  cases  lower  than  that  of  the  large  city  high 
schools.  The  principals  and  teachers  are  overbur- 
dened in  the  attempt  to  teach  a  large  number  of  subjects, 
sometimes  as  many  as  seven  or  eight  in  one  day;  the  la- 
bour of  discipline  is  also  relatively  greater  than  in 
larger  schools.  The  number  of  pupils  to  whom  either 
debating  or  athletics  spontaneously  attracts  is  often  too 
small  for  any  efficient  organization.  Here  again  the 
teachers  sometimes  turn  the  debating  into  a  class-room 
exercise.     In  small  schools  the  formal  organization  side 


292  STUDENT  LIFE  AND  CUSTOMS. 

is  less  essential  than  elsewhere.  The  entire  high  school 
may  be,  and  usually  is,  in  the  country,  one  large  society; 
play  arises  without  formal  games.  Nowhere  is  the  in- 
fluence of  the  principal  so  powerful  to  mould  the 
opinion  and  practice  of  the  school. 

Normal  schools  have  their  own  peculiar  tendencies; 
they  are  conditioned  by  the  character  of  their  students, 
who  are  more  mature,  earnest,  and  hard-working  than 
those  attending  other  types  of  secondary  schools;  the 
majority  come  from  homes  of  the  lower  middle  class 
and  are  ambitious  to  make  their  way  in  the  world.  In 
many  parts  of  the  West  and  South  the  ideals  of  the  nor- 
mal schools  are  determined  by  a  class  of  men  and  wom- 
en of  the  college  age,  who  have  already  spent  some  time 
in  the  active  service  of  teaching.  For  these  same  rea- 
sons normal  students  are  extremely  practical;  they  de- 
mand some  substantial  return  for  every  moment  of 
time  expended.  In  consequence  of  this,  debating  so- 
cieties and  Christian  associations  are  their  strongest 
organizations,  although  recently  many  of  them  have 
put  athletic  teams  in  the  field.  These  teams  are  usually 
weak  and  poorly  supported,  and  by  no  means  arouse 
the  enthusiasm  which  similar  teams  command  else^ 
where.  Class  feeling  is  also  weak  before  graduation, 
although  in  many  normals  annual  reunions  bring  the 
alumni  together  frequently. 

Normal  school  authorities  differ  widely  in  their 
attitude  toward  student  organizations.  A  recent  com- 
mittee, consisting  of  prominent  normal  teachers  ap- 
pointed by  the  National  Educational  Association,  in- 
dorses student  societies  strongly.  "  Under  proper  man- 
agement and  care  the  literary  life  of  the  institution  can 
be  much  elevated  and  encouraged  by  the  students 
through  self-help  and  self-dependence,  as  exhibited 
through  literary  societies.  .  .  .  Teachers  should  be 
trained  to  write  and  to  speak.    They  should  be  at  home 


STUDENT  LIFE  IX  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS.      293 

on  the  page  of  the  periodical  and  on  the  platform.  .  .  . 
These  literary  societies  should  control  their  own  inter- 
nal affairs ;  they  should  do  more  to  develop  their  mem- 
bers than  to  entertain  audiences,  and  they  should  have 
great  encouragement  from  the  faculties  and  boards  of 
trustees,  as  after-years  will  demonstrate  the  fact  that 
no  work  at  the  school  gave  a  student  better  command 
of  himself  than  active  membership  in  the  literary  so- 
ciety/' The  Christian  associations  are  indorsed  in  the 
following  language :  "  Wherever  the  student  organiza- 
tions known  as  the  Young  Men's  Christian  Association 
and  Young  Women's  Christian  Association  are  encour- 
aged and  authorized  to  exist,  there  great  benefit  has 
always  come  to  the  moral  and  religious  life  of  the 
general  student  body."  *  Of  the  fifteen  normal  school 
teachers  and  principals  replying  to  the  questionnaire, 
two  expressed  themselves  as  strongly  opposed  to  student 
societies.  One  writer  argues  as  follows:  Students  in 
secondary  schools  are  forming  habits  of  study,  and 
therefore  should  devote  as  little  time  as  possible  to  out- 
side interests.  These  two  correspondents  represent  the 
driving  element  which  sometimes  comes  to  the  front  in 
normal  schools;  the  other  principals  speak  of  the  or- 
ganizations in  terms  of  the  highest  praise. 

Leaving  now  the  different  classes  of  schools,  we  will 
discuss  the  different  forms  of  activity  more  in  detail. 
The  class  organization  was  formed  in  thirty-eight  out 
of  the  forty-one  schools  reporting.  Usually  the  class 
organizes  upon  entering,  and  continues  organized 
through  the  four  years  of  the  secondary  school  course. 
In  other  cases  the  class  does  not  organize  until  the  sec- 
ond  year,    as   associations    of   first-year   students    are 

*  Report  of  the  Committee  on  Normal  Schools.  Z.  X.  Snyder, 
Chairman  (Section  IV),  The  Inner  Life  of  the  Normal  School. 
Proceedings  of  the  National  Educational  Association,  1899,  pp. 
861,  862. 


294  STUDENT  LIFE  AND   CUSTOMS. 

frowned  upon  by  the  authorities.  One  principal  states 
that  in  his  high  school  the  lighter  elements  of  the  class 
always  rise  to  the  top  during  the  first  year  of  organiza- 
tion; the  management  falls  into  undesirable  hands,  and 
a  waste  of  time  and  money  ensues.  Three  first  presi- 
dents of  classes  were  successively  expelled  from  the 
school.  During  the  remaining  years  the  class  is  well 
managed.  In  a  third  class  of  schools  the  class  remains 
unorganized  until  the  term  before  graduation,  when 
the  prospect  of  parting  draws  the  members  together. 
Many  principals  report  an  increase  of  interest  in  the 
class  as  the  senior  year  is  approached. 

Class  interest  manifests  itself  in  the  form  of  rivalry, 
athletic  contests,  and  social  events.  The  amount  of 
rivalry  differs  greatly;  sometimes  it  is  almost  entirely 
absent,  then  again  it  extends  to  pins,  colours,  and  yells, 
and  at  times  even  takes  a  more  violent  form  and  re- 
sults in  rushes,  and  occasionally  in  schemes  for  rebellion 
in  case  of  extreme  discipline.  Class  rivalry  in  ath- 
letics exists  to  some  extent  wherever  a  large  number  of 
students  take  part  in  the  sports,  but  it  is  always  second- 
ary and  subordinate  to  interscholastic  contests. 

The  chief  function  of  the  class,  particularly  in  the 
high  school,  is  to  promote  social  intercourse  by  dramat- 
ics, hiformal  dances,  and  more  formal  receptions.  In 
many  schools  the  juniors  give  an  annual  reception  to 
the  seniors.  In  towns  and  smaller  cities  the  school  is 
the  natural  centre  of  social  life,  and  meetings  between 
the  different  classes  and  teachers  often  produce  good 
feeling  and  give  the  students  a  needed  experience  of 
social  conventions.  In  a  larger  city  conditions  are  dif- 
ferent; society  is  stratified,  and  many  of  the  students 
would  not  meet  each  other  elsewhere  or  ever  enter 
the  inside   of   each   other's  homes.*     Here   social   af- 

*  "  Pupils  in  city  high  schools  have  too  much  social  life  as  it  is. 
I  am  unwilling  to  take  the  responsibility  when  I  must  work  in  the 


STUDENT  LIFE  IN  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS.      295 

fairs  in  connection  with  the  school  are  of  doubtful  ex- 
pediency. Such  affairs,  unless  closely  watched  by  the 
teachers,  tend  to  become  more  and  more  expensive,  and 
consequently  involve  an  undue  drain  on  the  finances  of 
many  pupils. 

In  a  majority  of  the  schools  the  class  organization 
is  accepted  as  a  matter  of  course,  but  no  attempt  is 
made,  except  in  a  few  institutions,  to  utilize  the  higher 
class  as  an  instrumentality  for  elevating  the  standard 
of  the  lower,  as  in  the  English  public  schools  since 
Arnold^s  day.  At  Phillips  Exeter  class  lines  are  im- 
portant and  somewhat  rigid;  for  a  student  to  be  trans- 
ferred from  one  class  to  another  is  no  ordinary  dis- 
grace. He  feels  that  he  has  lost  his  proper  status. 
Class  feeling  is -in  every  way  strengthened  and  encour- 
aged by  the  authorities,  and  is  considered  the  basis  of 
a  proper  school  spirit.  The  head  master  of  the  Bel- 
mont school,  California,  is  endeavouring  to  make  use 
of  the  position  of  the  senior  class  to  stimulate  its  mem- 
bers to  set  the  proper  standard  of  morals  and  manners. 
The  Groton  school  has  transplanted  the  sixth  form 
rule  from  England;  it  is  said  to  succeed  admirably. 

The  tie  of  class  in  many  normal  and  high  schools  is 
likely  to  be  stronger  after  graduation  than  before.  The 
more  restricted  social  life  of  the  graduates  of  these 
schools  enables  them  to  keep  alive  a  keen  interest  in 
the  doings  of  their  classmates.  Class  banquets  and 
reunions  are  of  common  occurrence.  However,  like  all 
such  organizations  in  secondary  schools,  they  have  not 
the  stability  and  sustained  interest  which  characterize 
college  associations  of  the  same  t}^e. 

Out  of  the  forty-one  secondary  schools  which  re- 
dark  and  not  know  what  elements  I  am  bringing  together.  I  am 
unwilling  to  thus  risk  tangling  the  threads  of  Fate." — Florence 
Milner,  in  School  Review,  vol.  vii,  p.  216. 


296  STUDENT  LIFE  AND  CUSTOMS. 

plied  to  the  questionnaire,  thirty-one  reported  debat- 
ing societies  in  active  operation.  The  principals  and 
teachers,  with  one  exception,  regarded  these  organi- 
zations with  favour;  the  one  exception  thought  that 
the  pupils  were  already  overburdened  with  the  work 
of  the  curriculum.*  In  the  fitting  schools,  from  one 
fourth  to  one  half  the  boys  belong,  on  the  average;  in 
some  few  schools,  all  the  boys.  A  much  smaller  per- 
centage of  high-school  pupils  were  members,  usually 
from  five  to  twenty  per  cent,  although  the  writer  has 
known  of  exceptional  schools  where  fully  eighty  per 
cent  belonged.  The  evidence  shows  that  debating 
clubs  are  most  numerous  and  highly  prized  in  normal 
schools,  where  their  membership  often  includes  prac- 
tically the  entire  student  body.  They  are  also  strong 
in  the  preparatory  departments  of  Western  denomina- 
tional colleges. 

To  give  the  reader  an  idea  of  the  working  of  these 
societies,  we  include  two  quotations,  one  from  the  head 
master  of  an  academy,  and  the  other  from  the  principal 
of  a  leading  high  school,  describing  the  operation  of 
these  societies  in  their  respective  schools.  The  ac- 
count from  the  co-educational  academy  runs  as  fol- 
lows: "Four  literary  and  debating  societies  flourish  in 
the  school.  The  two  of  them  for  the  boys  are  more 
than  fifty  years  old,  and  do  very  good  work.  They  elect 
their  own  officers,  prepare  their  own  programmes,  fur- 

*  This  testimony  corresponds  with  the  result  of  a  questionnaire 
investigation  made  by  Prof.  Henry  W.  Thurston,  and  reported  in 
the  School  Review  (vol.  vi,  p.  577,  1898)  under  the  title,  Training 
for  Citizenship  in  the  Public  Schools.  Of  the  seven  correspond- 
ents who  specifically  mention  debating  societies  in  his  report,  six 
favour  and  one  condemns  them.  The  one  criticism  runs  as  fol- 
lows :  "  Such  societies  are  a  source  of  disorder  in  a  building  and 
often  conflict  with  authority,  and  children  of  that  age  [secondary- 
school  age]  are  not  fit  to  exercise  authority." 


STUDENT  LIFE  IN  SECONDAEY  SCHOOLS.      297 

nish  their  own  halls,  and  succeed  in  developing  con- 
siderable forensic  ability.  Each  of  these  societies  num- 
bers among  its  members  public  speakers  of  prominence. 
There  is  never  an  occasion  of  anxiety  to  the  manage- 
ment of  the  school  except  rarely,  when  interest  in  them 
flags  on  the  part  of  the  members  because  of  outside 
sports,  as  football  or  baseball.  One  evening  each  week 
is  given  up  exclusively  to  this  work.  The  girls  in  their 
organizations  have  more  time  for  music  and  essays;  de- 
bate with  them  is  incidental.  Society  feeling  is  not 
so  strong  among  them." 

One  high-school  principal  *  writes:  "  Our  pupils 
have  a  flourishing  debating  society  which  is  well  at- 
tended once  a  fortnight,  and  well  managed,  considering 
the  age  of  the  pupils.  I  am  always  present  as  a  visitor, 
and  am  frequently  invited  to  serve  them  in  a  variety  of 
w^ays.  Some  marked  power  is  developed  each  year  in 
a  number  of  individuals.  The  majority  take  little 
part,  being  younger  pupils.  The  burden  of  work  is 
done  by  a  few  older  boys  who  attend.  The  results  are 
good.  The  kind  of  debate  preferred  is  the  '  drash  de- 
bate/ in  which  the  audience  is  requested  to  send  in  slips 
bearing  a  subject  and  the  name  of  a  proposed  debater. 
These  are  arranged  in  order  by  a  presiding  offlcer  and 
the  proposed  debaters  called  out,  one  after  another. 
This  cultivates  readiness,  but  places  '  smart  speeches  '  of 
short  duration  in  prominence.  The  prepared  debates 
are  sometimes  excellent,  particularly  if  some  rivalry 
enters  in,  as  in  class  debates,  when  one  class  is  pitted 
against  another,  or  prize  debates  with  other  schools." 

The  first  Greek-letter  society  for  schools  of  a  sec- 
ondary grade  was  the  Alpha  Phi,  a  h"f  crary  society  which 
was  merged  into  a  fraternity  in  1876,  and  established 

*  Prof.  Ray  Greene  Ruling,  of  the  Cambridge  English  High 
School. 


298  STUDENT  LIFE  AND  CUSTOMS. 

chapters  in  a  limited  number  of  schools  in  eastern  New 
York,  New  Jersey,  and  Delaware.  Baird  enumerates 
nine  other  societies  of  this  class,  all  of  them  confined  to 
some  small  section  of  the  country,  and  some  of  them 
limited  to  a  single  chapter.  Among  the  most  promi- 
nent are  Alpha  Zeta,  among  the  high  schools  of  eastern 
New  York;  the  Gamma  Eta  Kappa,  in  central  Califor- 
nia; and  the  Omicron  Kappa  Pi,  in  Chicago.  No  statis- 
tics have  been  published  of  the  membership  of  these 
societies.*  Local  societies  modelled  on  those  of  Yale 
are  found  in  some  of  the  most  prominent  preparatory 
schools  of  New  England,  particularly  Phillips  Exeter 
and  Andover. 

The  opinions  of  the  head  masters  and  principals  of 
high  schools,  as  far  as  we  have  collected  them,  condemn 
secondary  school  fraternities.  Nine  of  our  correspond- 
ents objected  to  them  and  none  defended  them,  al- 
though they  were  permitted  to  exist  in  six  schools.  Al- 
most all  the  private  secondary  schools  prohibit  them, 
and  the  high  schools  discourage  their  formation. 
Where  they  are  permitted,  as  at  Exeter  and  Andover, 
one  member  of  the  faculty  must  be  chosen  a  member, 
and  have  access  to  all  the  meetings  of  the  society,  which 
he  closely  watches.  A  correspondent  from  one  school, 
where  four  such  societies  exist,  writes  as  follows:  "I 
regard  all  [student]  institutions  of  value  except  the 
Greek-letter  fraternities.  I  should  be  very  glad  to  see 
them  all  die.  They  are  not,  however,  an  unmixed  evil, 
and  undoubtedly  do  a  good  deal  toward  rubbing  off  the 
corners  and  making  the  immature  student  more  manly, 
provided  the  influence  exerted  is  judicious;  but  there  is 
such  a  very  large  opportunity  for  injudicious  influence 
in  the  fraternity  organization  that  I  am  disposed  to 

*  For  a  detailed  account,  see  Baird,  W.  R.,  College  Fraternities, 
fifth  edition,  pp.  362-365. 


STUDENT  LIFE  IN  SECONDARY   SCHOOLS.      299 

believe  that  the  defects  of  the  system  are  greater  than 
its  virtues/'  A  prominent  \Yestern  head  master  writes: 
"  I  distinctly  discourage  school  fraternities,  and  none 
therefore  exist  in  the  schools.  There  was  one  for  a 
time,  but  it  stirred  up  such  ill  feeling  that  it  split  the 
school  into  two  strong  factions.^' 

Of  all  the  activities  mentioned  in  the  questionnaire ^ 
athletics  seems  to  be  the  most  highly  valued  by  the  teach- 
ers, and  to  excite  the  greatest  enthusiasm  among  the 
boys.  In  the  language  of  one  head  master,  "  athletics 
serves  as  the  most  valuable  outlet  for  animal  spirits 
which  would  find  an  outlet  in  objectionable  ways;  and 
then  to  the  amount  of  training  necessary  to  build  up  a 
good  football  team  calls  for  hygienic  attention  and  re- 
straints that  are  of  great  value,  I  think;  and  then,  too, 
they  are  promoters  of  school  spirit  which  I  think  is  well 
worth  the  while."  The  uses  of  athletics  have  been  en- 
larged upon  in  the  section  treating  of  athletics  in  Eng- 
lish secondary  schools,  and  it  is  only  necessary  here  to 
state  that  the  best  American  head  masters  and  principals 
follow  in  the  path  which  English  precedent  has  estab- 
lished. Of  the  forty-one  schools  on  our  list,  thirty-two 
reported  full,  well-organized  athletic  teams.  The  dif- 
ferent athletic  games  are  mentioned  in  the  following 
order  of  frequency:  football  (19),  baseball  (18),  tennis 
(7),  track  (6),  and  boating  (2). 

Athletic  organization  is  a  close  imitation  of  college 
models.  Thus  the  athletics  of  the  Cambridge  high 
schools  is  managed  by  a  committee  composed,  like  that 
of  Harvard,  of  equal  representation  of  students,  gradu- 
ates, and  professors.  In  the  majority  of  schools  the 
scheme  or  organization  is  more  simple;  one  member  of 
the  school-teaching  force,  usually  either  the  head  master 
or  professor  of  physical  training,  makes  it  his  business 
to  superintend  the  school  games,  coaching  the  teams, 
accompanying  them  on  trips,  and  acting  as  treasurer  of 


300  STUDENT  LIFE  AND  CUSTOMS. 

the  student  athletic  association.  The  efficiency  of  the 
student  management  depends  on  the  manager  and  cap- 
tain. "  If  either  of  these  men  is  a  leader,  even  though 
he  may  not  have  very  much  technical  ability  in  the  par- 
ticular game,  the  season  is  an  assured  success."  Inter- 
scholastic  associations  with  rigid  rules  barring  out  illicit 
practices  are  found  among  those  schools  situated  near 
the  large  centres  of  population.  They  closely  follow 
college  models. 

The  abuses  which  have  been  frequent  in  secondary 
school  athletics  have  been  due  (1)  to  inadequate  super- 
vision and  control  on  the  part  of  the  authorities,  and  (2) 
to  the  desire  of  the  school  to  advertise  itself.  The  high 
schools  have  laid  themselves  more  open  to  the  first 
charge,  the  private  secondary  school  to  the  second. 
The  dangers  besetting  all  forms  of  amateur  athletics  in 
America  are  doubly  great  in  case  of  the  secondary 
schools,  owing  to  the  immaturity  of  their  students.  In 
many  high  schools  the  initiative  in  and  entire  manage- 
ment of  competitive  contests  has  been  left  to  boys  of 
sixteen  or  seventeen  years,  which  has  naturally  resulted 
oftentimes  in  sharp  practice  and  embezzlement  of  funds. 
The  second  evil  is  by  no  means  as  serious,  although  here 
and  there  a  head  master  may  be  found  who  will  wink  at 
sharp  practices  until  the  season  is  over.  As  the  athletic 
prestige  of  a  school  has  a  tangible  cash  value,  it  speaks 
well  "for  the  morals  of  the  teaching  profession  that  this 
form  of  perversion  is  not  more  common.  In  many 
schools  the  only  students  to  compete  are  those  who  have 
hopes  of  gaining  distinction  thereby.  In  only  one 
school  was  participation  in  athletics  compulsory.  On 
the  average,  perhaps  fifty  per  cent  of  the  students  in 
the  best  academies  take  part  in  games,  while  in  most 
high  schools  such  activities  hardly  reach  more  than  ten 
per  cent  of  the  student  body. 

Five  schools  out  of  the  forty-one  reported  the  exist- 


STUDENT  LIFE  IN  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS.      301 

ence  of  some  form  of  student  self-government.  AYith 
one  exception,  M'here  English  precedent  was  followed, 
these  constitutional  governments  seem  to  be  recent 
foundations  and  the  result  of  the  movement  which  has 
swept  over  the  country  in  the  last  five  years,  and  includes 
schools  containing  at  least  fifty  thousand  students  in  its 
scope.*  The  movement  originated  in  the  interest  pro- 
duced by  the  George  Junior  Republic,  a  unique  institu- 
tion in  central  Xew  York.  Mr.  George,  the  founder, 
took  a  number  of  boys  from  the  lower  classes  of  Xew 
York  city  into  the  country  for  a  vacation  colony,  and 
there  established  a  complete  imitation  of  a  municipal 
government,  with  president,  judges,  legislature,  and  po- 
lice. The  Eepublic  was  by  no  means  a  mere  play  insti- 
tution, as  the  citizens  were  subject  to  fines  and  imprison- 
ment. The  Eepublic  issued  a  special  currency  which 
was  redeemable  in  hard  cash,  so  that  the  community  pos- 
sessed a  firm  industrial  as  well  as  political  backing.  The 
plan  was  heralded  abroad  as  a  striking  success,  and  some 
of  the  large  Xew  York  and  Chicago  dailies  began  to 
establish  similar  colonies,  f 

The  schools  were  not  slow  to  recognise  the  value 
of  the  suggestion,  and  many  of  them  adopted  constitu- 
tions providing  for  the  maintenance  of  discipline  by  the 
pupils.  A  number  of  these  constitutions  have  been 
published  in  the  School  Eeview,  with  a  brief  account  of 
the  experiments.  From  these,  we  choose  an  account  of 
the  scheme  at  the  Hyde  Park  High  School,  Chicago,  as 
typical.  X 


*  The  estimate  is  made  by  Albert  Shaw,  in  an  article,  The 
School  City,  Review  of  Reviews,  December,  1899. 

f  For  best  account  of  the  experiment,  see  Commons,  J.  R..  The 
Junior  Republic,  American  Journal  of  Sociolo,c:y,  vol.  iii,  p.  281. 

X  French,  C.  W.  School  Government,  School  Review,  vol.  vi, 
p.  35. 


302  STUDENT  LIFE  AND  CUSTOMS. 

The  theory  of  the  new  experiment  demands  the  ex- 
tension of  democratic  principles  to  the  schoolroom,  and 
this  in  the  interests  of  good  training  for  citizenship. 
The  antithesis  between  democracy  in  the  management 
of  local  community  affairs  and  autocracy  in  the  school- 
room is  dwelt  upon  at  length.  We  are  told  that  the 
school  is  a  distinct  community  by  itself,  with  the  inter- 
ests and  possibilities,  if  not  with  all  the  functions,  of  the 
larger  community  outside.  The  political  incompetency 
evident  in  many  communities  is  held  by  the  thinkers 
of  this  school  to  be  the  legitimate  result  of  the  abuse 
of  authority  in  the  schoolroom. 

In  the  Hyde  Park  High  School  "  each  room  elects 
in  regular  form  a  representative  to  a  body  which  is  part- 
ly legislative  and  partly  executive  in  its  function,  and  is 
called  a  senate.  This  body  elects  a  president  and  secre- 
tary, appoints  the  necessary  committees,  and  assumes 
the  control  of  order  in  the  halls  and  the  care  of  furni- 
ture and  buildings;  it  formulates  a  code  of  laws  and  ap- 
points a  corps  of  tribunes  to  execute  them.  The  laws 
are  read  to  the  students  in  each  room  and  carefully  ex- 
plained, so  that  the  reasons  for  their  adoption  and  the 
methods  of  their  enforcement  are  clearly  understood, 
and  then  they  are  posted  in  conspicuous  places.  When- 
ever classes  are  passing  through  the  halls,  the  tribunes 
are  stationed  at  strategic  points  throughout  the  build- 
ing to  see  that  the  rules  are  enforced." 

The  senate  appoints  a  court  of  three  judges  to 
whom  all  cases  of  lawbreaking  are  reported,  and  before 
whom  the  serious  ones  are  tried  with  the  customary  pro- 
cedure of  prosecution  and  defence.  The  judges  very 
v/isely  make  their  administration  reformatory  rather 
than  punitive  in  its  purposes,  and  seldom  find  it  neces- 
sary to  inflict  a  penalty. 

We  are  told  that  the  whole  body  of  students,  with 
few  exceptions,  are  intensely  loyal  to  the  idea.     They 


STUDENT  LIFE  IX  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS.      303 

take  pride  in  the  recognition  of  their  rights  and  feel 
that  they  are  individually  responsible  for  the  welfare 
and  good  name  of  the  school.  '^  The  old  spirit  of  forced 
submission  to  authority  is  passing  away,  and  in  its  place 
is  coming  a  voluntary  submission  to  the  general  rules 
of  good  behaviour  as  embodied  in  the  laws  which  they 
themselves  have  made.  Excellent  order  is  maintained 
by  the  student  tribunes,  and  in  no  case  has  the  student 
citizen  refused  to  give  his  testimony  in  any  case  where 
the  integrity  of  his  institution  was  at  stake.  In  general, 
such  evidence  has  been  given  in  a  manly  and  womanly 
way,  and  no  stigma  has  been  attached  to  the  witness." 

In  the  Pratt  High  School,  Brooklyn,  the  students 
distinctly  objected  to  being  put  in  a  position  of  spying 
on  one  another,  or  of  punishing  their  fellow-students. 
The  constitution  is  somewhat  more  complex  than  that 
of  Hyde  Park.  It  was  framed  on  the  model  of  the  Fed- 
eral Constitution,  and  delegates  authority  to  an  execu- 
tive (principal  of  the  school),  a  senate  (teachers),  an  as- 
sembly (seniors),  and  the  Judiciary  (equal  members  of 
teachers  and  seniors).  "  The  plan  has  worked  beauti- 
fully. It  has  a  beneficent  effect  on  both  teachers  and 
students.  Every  student  knows  he  is  free  to  appeal  to 
the  school  court  when  he  regards  the  requirement  of 
teachers  and  principal  as  unjust.  Every  teacher  and  the 
principal  feels  that  any  whimsical  or  unduly  severe  ex- 
action is  subject  to  review  by  the  instructors  and  three 
students;  and  as  a  result  there  has  not  been  one  appeal 
since  the  plan  was  instituted."  * 

The  published  testimony  in  general  agrees  with  the 
examples  here  given,  although  there  are  some  excep- 
tions which  will  be  referred  to  later.  However,  it  may 
be  said  that  the  experiments  are  too  recent  to  justify  any 

*  McAndrew,  W.  A.     High  School  Self-Government,  School 
■Review,  vol.  v,  p.  458,  1897. 


304  STUDENT  LIFE  AND  CUSTOMS. 

authoritative  conclusions.  The  various  schemes  have 
been  in  the  hands  of  sympathetic  friends  who,  by  their 
own  example  and  inspiration,  probably  contributed 
largely  to  the  results  achieved.  Then  the  published 
accounts  are  special  pleas;  they  "  put  the  best  foot  fore- 
most." Conversation  with  unsympathetic  teachers  or 
assistants  brings  out  many  counterbalancing  facts 
which  are  overlooked  in  the  printed  accounts.  How- 
ever, the  experiments  do  show  that  the  strong  play  im- 
pulse in  children,  which  frequently  takes  the  form  of 
imitating  adult  activities,  may  be  appealed  to  by  a  sym- 
pathetic principal  and  made  the  means  of  arousing  a 
strong  interest  in  the  problems  of  government. 

In  addition  to  the  important  forms  of  activity  which 
we  have  discussed,  there  are  numerous  miscellaneous 
clubs  of  minor  importance  among  students  in  second- 
ary schools.  Our  questionnaire  reveals  the  existence,  in 
the  forty-one  institutions  studied,  of  twenty  school 
papers,  eleven  religious  associations  (confined  to  board- 
ing schools),  eleven  musical  clubs,  seven  reading  circles, 
six  camera  clubs,  four  chess  and  whist  clubs,  and  two 
dramatic  associations.  These  societies  have  a  distinct 
value  in  affording  opportunities  for  social  diversion  to 
students  of  peculiar  tastes  who  would  otherwise  be  ex- 
cluded from  the  circle  of  school  interests.  Like  similar 
organizations  in  colleges,  these  clubs  are  much  more 
temporary  in  character  than  the  more  vital  activities. 

As  to  the  value  of  student  organizations  as  an  educa- 
tional agency,  three  distinct  attitudes  were  taken  by  our 
correspondents.  A  small  number — only  two  out  of  the 
thirty  replying  to  the  questionnaire — consider  these  so- 
cieties as  entirely  alien  to  the  work  of  the  school,  and 
doubt  the  advisability  of  their  existence  in  institutions 
of  the  secondary  grade.  Fourteen  consider  them  as  le- 
gitimate but  as  quite  subordinate,  and  seem  to  consider 
the  present  condition  of  affairs  quite  satisfactory.     The 


STUDENT  LIFE   IN  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS.      305 

remaining  fourteen  consider  them  as  an  essential  ele- 
ment in  school  life^  and  endeavour  by  various  means  to 
strengthen  such  associations  and  render  them  more  effi- 
cient. 

Mr.  Thurston's  results  should  be  compared  with 
those  just  presented.  Out  of  twenty-two  definite  replies 
from  high  schools  on  the  value  of  school  activities,  fif- 
teen were  favourable  in  general  and  seven  unfavourable. 
As  we  have  already  noted,  debating  societies  were 
strongly  favoured,  while  sentiment  was  equally  divided 
on  the  subject  of  athletics.  Mr.  Thurston  concludes 
that  opinions  are  very  diverse  respecting  the  ability  of 
secondary  students  to  run  their  own  clubs,  athletic  asso- 
ciations, etc.,  and  that  there  is  now  comparatively  little 
emphasis  put  on  the  value  of  these  voluntary  associations 
in  training  for  democratic  citizenship.* 

There  is  also  a  great  preponderance  of  testimony  in 
favour  of  a  close  interest  in,  and  supervision  of  second- 
ary school  societies  on  the  part  of  the  school  authorities. 
By  supervision  is  not  meant  direct  interference,  but  the 
control  of  standards  through  suggestion,  and  a  close 
watchfulness  against  degeneration.  Many  of  the  most 
experienced  schoolmen  favour  such  societies  only  when 
they  are  supervised.  Out  of  the  twenty-five  correspond- 
ents replying  to  this  question,  twenty-one  favour  sys- 
tematic watchfulness  and  supervision,  while  four  be- 
lieve that  the  societies  should  be  left  entirely  to  student 
initiation  and  control,  and  that  tliey  are  only  valuable 
when  spontaneous. 

In  the  encouragement  of  social  activities  there  is 
one  caution  which  should  be  continually  in  mind,  and 
which  has  been  well  put  by  President  Sharpless,  of 
Haverf ord :  "  It  is  true  that  a  school  without  physical 

*  Thurston.  Henry  W.     Training  for  Citizenship  in  the  Pubhc 
Schools,  School  Review,  vol.  vi,  p.  577,  1898. 
20 


306  STUDENT  LIFE  AND  CUSTOMS. 

and  other  outside  organizations  is  not  nsually  a  desirable 
school,  and  moreover,  in  this  country  of  the  all-powerful 
boy,  might  not  be  a  popular  or  profitable  school.  But  I 
would  like  to  do  something  to  exalt  the  really  ambitious 
and  promising  student  from  the  herd  of  athletes  and 
musicians  in  which  he  is  now  lost.  I  would  like  to  make 
it  felt  that  the  real  hero  is  the  intellectual  rather  than 
the  physical  leader,  and  that  the  much  maligned  '  grind  ' 
is  in  many  cases  the  boy  with  the  future.  Will  not  this 
be  in  the  long  run  to  the  great  advantage  of  the  ath- 
letic interests  with  which  I  am  in  great  sympathy?  .  .  . 
It  is  lamentable  to  see  the  difference  with  which  many 
excellent  and  well-prepared  students  regard  their  intel- 
lectual opportunities.  After  passing  through  the  sec- 
ondary school  they  are  to  have  their  reward  in  the  social 
and  athletic  activities  of  college  life."  * 

*  Sharpless,  Isaac,  in  School  Review,  vol.  vi,  p.  150,  1898. 


APPENDIX 


A  SELECT  CRITICAL  BIBLIOGRAPHY  ON 
STUDENT  SOCIETIES. 

I.  Studext  Life  during  the  Medieval  Period 
IN-  Europe. 

1.  CoMPATRE,  Gabriel.  Abelard  and  the  Origin 
and  Early  History  of  the  LTniversities.  Pp.  xiii  +  315. 
New  York,  1897. 

The  nations  are  described  in  Part  II,  Chapter  II, 
student  life  Part  lY,  Chapters  I  and  II;  best  popular 
account. 

2.  Laurie,  S.  S.  Lectures  on  the  Eise  and  Early 
Constitution  of  the  Universities,  with  a  Survey  of  Me- 
diaeval Education.    Pp.  ix  +  293.    London,  1886. 

Chapter  IX  contains  a  readable  sketch  of  mediaeval 
student  life. 

3.  Eashdall,  Hastings.  The  Universities  of  Eu- 
rope in  the  Middle  Ages.  Three  volumes.  London, 
1895. 

Eashdall's  fourteenth  chapter  contains  the  most 
scholarly  and  reliable  treatment  of  the  subject  in  Eng- 
lish.    Elsewhere  he  discusses  the  nations  and  colleges. 

4.  MuLLiNGER,  James  Bass.  The  University  of 
Cambridge  to  the  Accession  of  Charles  I.  Two  vol- 
umes..   Cambridge,  1873,  1884. 

307 


308  STUDENT  LIFE  AND  CUSTOMS. 

Volume  I,  Chapter  IV,  is  devoted  to  student  life; 
accurate  but  less  full  than  Rashdall. 

5.  Lyte,  H.  C.  Maxwell.  A  History  of  the  Uni- 
versity of  Oxford  from  the  Earliest  Times  to  the  Year 
1530.     Pp.  xii  +  504.    London,  1886. 

Material  scattered  and  treatment  inferior  to  Mul- 
linger  and  Eashdall. 

(See  under  German  student  life  for  additional  no- 
tices of  the  mediaeval  period.) 

II.  Student  Life  among  German-speaking 
Nations. 

A.  General,  Historical,  and  Descriptive. 

6.  Barnstein,  Adolf  Pernwerth.  Beitrage  zur 
Geschichte  und  Literatur  des  deutschen  Studenten- 
thums  von  der  Griindung  der  altesten  deutschen  Uni- 
versitaten  bis  auf  die  unmittelbare  Gegenwart,  mit  be- 
sonderer  Beriicksichtigung  des  XIX.  Jahrhunderts. 
Pp.  vii  +  88  +  156.     Wlirzburg,  1882. 

Contains  the  most  complete  historical  sketch ;  which, 
however,  is  very  brief,  and  a  valuable  bibliography  of 
three  hundred  and  sixty  titles,  dealing  with  all  phases 
of  German  student  life. 

7.  DoLCH,  OsKAR.  Geschichte  des  deutschen  Stu- 
dententhums  von  der  Griindung  der  deutschen  Universi- 
taten  bis  zu  den  deutschen  Freiheitskriegen.  Pp.  viii 
H-  300.    Leipzig,  1858. 

The  standard  German  authority.  The  introduction 
treats  of  student  life  in  other  European  countries. 

8.  Paulsen,  Friedrick.  The  German  Universi- 
ties; their  Character  and  Historical  Development. 
Authorized  translation  by  Edward  Delavan  Perry,  and 


APPENDIX.  309 

introduction  by  Nicholas  Murray  Butler.     Pp.  xxxi  +' 
246.     Xew  York,  1895. 

In  Chapter  V  Professor  Paulsen  discusses  the  pres- 
ent forms  of  German  student  clubs  and  their  social 
value.    Another  translation  found  in  Annual  Eeport  of 
"^  Bureau  of  Education,  1891-'92. 

9.  Raumer,  Kael  vox.    Geschichte  der  Padagogik. 
■^  Two  volumes.    Vierter  Theil.    Die  deutschen  Universi- 

taten.    Pp.  x  +  332.    Jiitersloh,  1882. 

Translated  in  Barnard's  American  Journal  of  Edu- 
cation, Volumes  Yl  and  VII.  It  contains  a  complete 
history  of  student  life  to  the  nineteenth  century.  From 
1800  on,  the  author  relates  his  experience  with  the 
Corps  and  Burschenschaften. 

10.  ZiEGLER,  Theobald.  Der  deutsche  Student  am 
Ende  des  19  Jahrhunderts.    Pp.  240.    Leipzig,  1896. 

The  seventh  lecture  treats  of  the  duel,  the  eighth  of 
student  clubs;  these  problems  are  taken  up  from  a 
modern  pedagogical  standpoint. 

B.  Special  Treatises. 

11.  Bayer,  Edmund.  Die  Entstehung  der  deut- 
schen Burschenschaft  in  Sammlung  gemeinverstand- 
licher  wissenschaftlicher  Vortrage.     Berlin,  1883. 

12.  Carove,  Friedrich  Wilhelm.     Entwurf  einer 
.     Burschenschafts-Ordnung.    Pp.  286.    Eisenach,  1818. 

A  manual  of  the  Burschenschaften,  containing  an 
elaborate  justification  of  them. 

13.  Diesterweg,  F.  a.  W.  Ueber  das  Verderben 
auf  den  deutschen  Universitaten.    Pp.  76.    Essen,  1836. 

An  attack  on  the  German  university  system. 

14.  Keil  Richard  und  Robert.  Geschichte  des 
Jenaischen  Studentenlebens  von  der  Grlindung  der  Uni- 


310  STUDENT  LIFE  AND  CUSTOMS. 

versitat  bis  zur  Gegenwart   (1548-1858).     Pp.  xiv -p 
662.    Leipzig,  1858. 

A  classic  in  this  field;  the  most  important  treatise 
which  has  yet  appeared  on  any  aspect  of  German  student 
life. 

15.  Meyek,  F.  H.  Leben  und  Sitten  deutscher  Stu- 
denten.  (Containing  Die  Studenten,  ein  Lnstspiel  von 
Christoph  Stymmel.)      Pp.   100.     Leipzig,  1857. 

A  play  describing  conditions  in  1545. 

16.  MuTHER,  D.  Theodor.  Aus  dem  Universitats- 
nnd  Gelehrtenleben  im  Zeitalter  der  Reformation.  Pp. 
499.     Erlangen,  1866. 

Contains  valuable  account  of  pre-Eeformation  con- 
ditions, with  a  scholarly  analysis  of  the  sources. 

17.  ScHEiDLER,  Karl  Hermann.  Ueber  das 
deutsche  Studentenleben  und  die  Nothwendigkeit  einer 
innern,  von  den  Studirenden  selbst  ausgehenden  Ee- 
form  desselben.    Pp.  96.     Jena,  1842. 

18.  ScHEiDLER,  Karl  Hermann.  Deutscher  Stu- 
dentenspiegel  als  Beitrag  zu  einer  Eeform  des  deut- 
schen  Studentenlebens  im  Geist  unserer  Zeit  und  un- 
seres  Volkthums.     Pp.  327.     Jena,  1844. 

19.  Schmidt,  Erich.  Komodien  von  Studenten- 
leben aus  dem  sechzehnten  und  siebenzehnten  Jahr- 
hundert.    Pp.  35.    Leipzig,  1880. 

20.  Seifart,  Karl.  Altdeutsches  Studentenle- 
ben.   Pp.  71.     Bremen,  1856. 

21.  Wrege,  Eeinhold.  Die  Hochquart.  Eine  Stu- 
denten  Oepopoe.     Essen,  1882. 

A  burlesque. 

22.  Wrege,  Eeinhold.  Das  Bilder-Buch  eines  ar- 
men  Studenten.    Pp.  98.    Berlin,  1868. 

A  collection  of  sentimental  stories. 


APPENDIX.  311 

23.  Wrege,  Eeixhold.  Xaturgeschichte  des  deut- 
schen  Studenten  von  Plinius  dem  Jiingsten.  Pp.  208. 
Leipzig. 

C.  Descriptions  hy  Foreigners. 

24.  Baynes,  a.  H.  German  Student  Life.  Fra- 
ser's  Magazine,  vol.  civ,  p.  630. 

A  clever,  well-written  account  by  an  Englishman 
from  an  English  standpoint. 

25.  BoYESEN,  Hjalmar  Hjorth.  German  Stu- 
dent Life.    Cosmopolitan  Magazine,  vol.  x,  p.  368. 

An  excellent  description  of  recent  developments. 
Compares  German  and  English  student  life. 

26.  Hart,  James  Morgan.  German  Universities. 
A  Narrative  of  Personal  Adventure.    New  York,  1874. 

Describes  student  life  in  the  sixties,  compares  Ger- 
man and  American  customs.  Best  discussion  of  duel- 
ling by  a  foreigner. 

27.  HowiTT,  William.  The  Student  Life  of  Ger- 
many.    London,  1841. 

Consists  of  a  translation  of  a  treatise  by  Dr.  Cor- 
nelius, of  Heidelberg ;  a  general  encyclopaedia  of  infor- 
mation on  the  subject,  but  somewhat  diffuse. 

28.  Russell,  James  E.  German  Higher  Schools. 
The  History,  Organization,  and  Methods  of  Secondary 
Education  in  Germany.  Pp.  viii  +  455.  New  York, 
1899. 

Chapter  X  describes  student  life  in  the  German  sec- 
ondary schools. 

29.  Warrex,  F.  M.  Student  Life  in  Germany. 
Chautauquan,  vol.  ix,  p.  582. 

Brief  but  thoughtful;  contains  some  general  hints 
of  value. 

30.  Warren,  F.  M.    The  Corps  Fuchs  and  the  Ree- 


312  STUDENT  LIFE  AND  CUSTOMS. 

reations  of  a  Corps  Bursch.    Saturday  Eeview,  vol.  Ivii, 
pp.  42,  241. 

A  brief,  bright  sketch  of  the  recent  changes  in  stu- 
dent customs. 

III.  Student  Life  among  French-speaking 
Peoples. 

31.  Kimball,  Eichard  B.  Eomance  of  Student 
Life  Abroad.    Leipsic,  1854. 

Deals  with  student  life  in  Paris  during  the  for- 
ties. 

32.  Leuba,  James  H.  National  Destruction  and 
Construction  in  France  as  seen  in  Modern  Literature 
and  the  Neo-Christian  Movement.  American  Journal 
of  Psychology,  vol.  v,  p.  496. 

Describes  the  recent  student  associations  founded 
through  the  instrumentality  of  Lavisse. 

33.  Peterson,  Alice  Fessenden.  The  American 
Art  Student  in  Paris.  New  England  Magazine,  N.  S., 
vol.  ii,  p.  669. 

Contains  material  bearing  on  co-operation  among 
art  students. 

34.  Stanton,  Theodore.  French  University  Stu- 
dents.   Open  court,  vol,  vii,  pp.  38-39. 

A  brief  but  excellent  general  characterization  of 
French  student  life. 

35.  Symonds,  John  Addington.  Swiss  Athletic 
Sports.    Fortnightly  Eeview,  vol.  Ivi,  p.  408. 

An  account  of  a  Swiss  athletic  festival. 

36.  Tolman,  William  H.  International  Students' 
Associations.  Educational  Eeview  (American),  vol.  v, 
p.  363. 

Describes  organization  in  Scotland  and  France. 


APPENDIX.  313 

37.  Warren,  F.  M.  Student  Life  in  Paris.  Chau- 
tanquan,  vol.  ix,  p.  406. 

Another  good  characterization,  very  brief. 

38.  Whiteing,  Eichard.  The  American  Student 
at  the  Beaux-Arts.     Century  Magazine,  voL  i,  p.  259. 

Describes  student  customs  in  the  art  schools. 

39.  Fluchtiger  Blick  in  das  Pariser  Studentleben  in 
the  Grenzboten,  Xo.  38,  September,  1851,  X  Jahrgang. 

Deals  largely  with  the  grisette  phase  of  student  life. 

40.  Student  Life  in  Paris.  Household  Words,  vol. 
iii,  p.  286. 

A  brief  and  flippant  description  of  French  student 
life. 

41.  Athletics  in  France.  The  ^N'ation,  vol.  Ixvii, 
p.  245. 

A  brief  outline  of  the  rise  of  an  athletic  type  in 
France. 

42.  French  Athletic  Sports.  Saturday  Eeview,  vol. 
Ixix,  p.  694. 

A  discussion  of  athleticism  among  the  French  lycees. 

IV.  Studext  Life  in  the  English  Universities. 
A.  General,  Descriptive,  and  Historical. 

43.  Bristed,  Charles  Astor.  Five  Years  in  an 
English  L^niversity  (Cambridge).  Third  edition.  Pp. 
572.     Xew  York,  1873. 

Written  by  an  American  and  contains  many  inter- 
esting comparisons  of  student  life  in  the  two  countries. 
Describes  conditions  in  the  forties. 

44.  Everett,  Willia]m.  On  the  Cam.  Lectures  on 
the  University  of  Cambridge  in  England.  Pp.  390. 
Cambridge,  1865. 


314:  STUDENT  LIFE  AND  CUSTOMS. 

Another  American  book,  inferior  to  Bristed  for  de- 
tails, but  aims  to  be  more  comprehensive. 

45.  HuBER,  V.  A.  The  English  Universities.  (An 
abridged  translation  from  the  German,  edited  by  Fran- 
cis W.  Newman.)    Three  volumes.    London,  1843. 

Chapter  XI,  third  division,  contains  some  suggestive 
observations  on  social  life  in  the  English  universities. 

46.  Masson,  David.  The  Life  of  John  Milton  nar- 
rated in  Connection  with  the  Political,  Ecclesiastical, 
and  Literary  History  of  his  Time.  Six  volumes.  Lon- 
don. 

Chapter  IV,  Volume  I,  presents  a  picture  of  college 
life  at  Cambridge  in  1625. 

47.  MuLLiNGER^  James  Bass.  [The  History  of  the] 
University  of  Cambridge  to  the  Accession  of  Charles  I. 
Two  volumes.     Cambridge,  1873,  1884. 

Volume  II,  Chapter  V,  treats  of  student  life  at  the 
close  of  the  sixteenth  century. 

48.  Newman,  John  Henry.  The  Idea  of  a  Uni- 
versity Defined  and  Illustrated.  Seventh  edition.  Pp. 
xxii  +  239.     London,  1887. 

Lays  great  stress  on  the  social  function  of  the  uni- 
versity. 

49.  Pycroft,  James.  Oxford  Memories :  A  Eetro- 
spect  after  Fifty  Years.  Two  volumes.  Pp.  303  +  304. 
London,  1886. 

Diffuse,  but  contains  valuable  material  on  social  and 
athletic  affairs. 

50.  Wells,  J.  (editor).  Oxford  and  Oxford  Life. 
Chapters  on  the  Intellectual  Life;  the  Social  Life. 
Pp.  190.    London,  1892. 

Most  comprehensive  account  of  recent  conditions. 
Written  with  proper  perspective. 


APPENDIX.  315 

51.  Wordsworth,  Christopher.  Some  account  of 
the  studies  at  the  English  Universities  in  the  Eighteenth 
Century.    Cambridge,  1877. 

The  standard  authority  on  the  eighteenth  century; 
merely  an  undigested  collection  of  facts,  with  no  at- 
tempt at  narrative. 

B.  Briefer  Articles  on  Social  Life  in  General. 

52.  Davis,  Eichard  Harding.  Our  English  Cous- 
ins. Chapter  III.  Undergraduate  Life  at  Oxford.  Pp. 
228.     New  York,  1894. 

A  clever,  popular  account. 

53.  Lehmann,  E.  C.  In  Cambridge  Courts.  Stud- 
ies of  University  Life  in  Prose  and  Verse.  Pp.  240. 
London. 

A  collection  of  sketches,  dialogues,  and  verses  of  a 
humorous  nature,  giving  the  flavour  of  university  life. 

54.  Mellen,  Chase.  Undergraduate  Life  at  Ox- 
ford.   Outing,  vol.  xvii,  p.  344. 

Contains  an  excellent  account  of  athletic  organiza- 
tions. 

55.  Parker,  Charles  Pomeroy.  Eeminiscences  of 
Oxford.    Harvard  Monthly,  vol.  ii,  p.  127. 

Describes  social  life  at  Balliol  in  Jowett's  time. 

56.  Pearson,  Norman.  Undergraduate  Life  at  Ox- 
ford.   Lippincott's  Magazine,  vol.  Ixxxiii,  p.  QQ. 

Calls  attention  to  the  social  and  moral  discipline  of 
English  university  life. 

57.  Perry,  Walter  C.  German  Views  of  Oxford 
and  Cambridge.  Macmillan's  Magazine,  vol.  xxxvii,  p. 
406. 

A  review  of  Helmholtz's  address  on  the  English  uni- 
versity system. 


316  STUDENT  LIFE  AND   CUSTOMS. 

58.  Aspects  of  Modern  Oxford  by  a  Mere  Don.  Pp. 
135.    London,  1894. 

A  light,  sketchy  description  of  recent  tendencies  in 
English  university  life ;  contains  an  account  of  Oxford 
journalism. 

59.  College  Life  at  Cambridge.  Westminster  Ee- 
view,  vol.  xxxiv,  p.  456. 

An  attack  on  student  customs,  containing  a  satirical 
account  of  a  wine  party. 

60.  Gown  and  Town  Eows  at  Oxford  and  their  His- 
torical Significance.  Dublin  University  Magazine,  vol. 
Ixxi,  p.  361. 

C.  Articles  on  Athletics  in  the  English  Universities. 

61.  Grenfell,  W.  H.  Rowing  at  Oxford.  Eng- 
lish Illustrated  Magazine,  vol.  iv,  p.  498. 

A  fair,  general  account. 

62.  Laing,  J.  W.,  and  Bolton,  W.  W.  Faculty 
Control  of  Athletics  at  the  English  Universities.  Out- 
ing, vol.  xxvii,  p.  490. 

63.  Lehmann,  E.  C.  Eowing  at  Cambridge.  Eng- 
lish Illustrated  Magazine,  vol.  iv,  p.  507. 

64.  Shearman,  Montague,  and  Turner,  E.  W. 
Athletic  Sports  at  Oxford  and  Cambridge  Universities. 
English  Illustrated  Magazine,  vol.  ix,  p.  441. 

Describes  organization  and  training  for  track  ath- 
letics. 

65.  WiNBOLT,  S.  E.  Eowing  at  Oxford.  Atlantic 
Monthly,  vol.  Ixvii,  p.  788. 

An  excellent  brief  account  of  the  system  of  control 
and  training. 

66.  Boating  Life  at  Oxford.  London  Society  (Maga- 
zine), vol.  xi,  pp.  289,  425,  541. 


APPENDIX.  317 

Contains  realistic  accounts  of  social  events  con- 
nected with  Oxford  athletics. 

D.  Articles  on  Debating  Unions. 

67.  Everett,  William.  The  Cambridge  Union, 
Old  and  New.    Vol.  iv,  p.  40. 

An  excellent  description  by  an  American ;  contains  a 
brief  historical  resume. 

68.  Knatchbull-Hugessen,  E.  H.  The  Oxford 
Union.    Time,  vol.  ii,  p.  146. 

Eeminiscences  of  the  Union  in  1850;  presents  an 
excellent  view  of  its  inner  workings  at  that  time,  with 
criticism  of  debating  clubs. 

69.  Nicholson,  Edward  B.  The  Oxford  Union,  a 
History.    Macmillan's  Magazine,  vol.  xxviii,  p.  567. 

Contains  valuable  material  on  the  early  history  of 
the  society. 

70.  Nicholson,  Edward  B.  A  Night  in  the  Ox- 
ford Union.  London  Society  (Magazine),  vol.  xxii, 
p.  449. 

A  realistic  sketch  of  the  Union  at  work. 

Y.  Student  Life  in  the  English  Secondary 
Schools. 

A.  General,  Historical,  and  Descriptive. 

71.  Breul,  Karl.  Die  Einrichtung  und  Verwalt- 
ung  des  hoheren  Schulwesens  in  England  in  Baumeis- 
ter's  Handbuch,  vol.  i,  Munich,  1897. 

Contains  a  chapter  on  student  life  and  a  selected 
critical  bibliography  of  secondary  education. 

72.  CoRBiN,  John.  Schoolboy  Life  in  England :  an 
American  View.    Pp.  viii  +  226.    New  York,  1898. 


318  STUDENT  LIFE  AND  CUSTOMS. 

Written  from  a  pedagogical  standpoint ;  contains  in 
the  last  chapter  a  comparison  between  English  and 
American  schools.  Describes  life  at  Eton,  Winchester, 
and  Rugby.  The  author  has  a  slight  English  bias,  which 
does  not  vitiate  his  conclusions. 

73.  Lubbock,  Alfred.  Memories  of  Eton  and  Eto- 
nians.   London,  1899. 

Devoted  chiefly  to  athletics. 

74.  Lyte,  H.  C.  Maxwell.  A  History  of  Eton  Col- 
lege (1440-1875).     Pp.  527.     London,  1875. 

The  standard  authority;  contains  many  references 
to  rebellions  and  brutality  of  manners. 

75.  Mansfield,  R.  B.  (editor).  Great  Public 
Schools,  by  Various  Authors.     Pp.  344.    London. 

Contains  a  history  of  each  public  school,  with  an  ac- 
companying chapter  on  its  games. 

76.  Minqphin,  J.  G.  Cotton.  Old  Harrow  Days. 
London,  1898.  Contains  excellent  sketches  of  head- 
masters and  of  school  heroes  and  games. 

77.  Pascoe,  Charles  Eyre  (editor).  Everyday 
Life  at  Eton,  Harrow,  Rugby,  and  other  Great  Public 
Schools.  Sketched  by  the  Head  Scholars.  Pp.  324. 
New  York  and  London. 

The  most  valuable  single  book  on  life  in  the  sec- 
ondary schools  of  England. 

78.  Prickard,  a.  0.  Life  in  "  Commoners ''  in 
AYinchester  College  (1393-1893)  by  old  Wykehamists. 
Pp.  187.    London,  1893. 

A  number  of  disconnected  sketches. 

79.  Salmon,  Edward.  Juvenile  Literature  as  it  is. 
Pp.  240.     London,  1888. 

Chapter  IV  treats  of  school  stories,  characterizing 
the  books  o;f  Mr.  Hughes,  Archdeacon  Farrar,  Rev.  T. 


APPENDIX.  319 

S.  Millington,  Mr.  Ascott  E.  Hope,  Rev.  H.  C.  Adams, 
and  Mr.  Talbot  Baines  Eeed. 

80.  Shaepless,  Isaac.  English  Education  in  the 
Elementary  and  Secondary  Schools.    Xew  York,  1892. 

Chapter  V  contains  an  excellent  description  of  the 
great  public  schools. 

81.  WiLMOT,  E.  P.  Eaedley,  and  Streatfield,  E. 
C.  Charter  House,  Old  and  New.  Pp.  295.  London, 
1895. 

Describes  many  traditional  customs  and  games. 

82.  Recollections  of  Eton  by  an  Etonian.  Pp.  362. 
London,  1870. 

The  story  of  a  typical  Eton  career,  with  useful  notes 
on  fagging  and  athletics. 

83.  Great  Public  Schools — Eton,  Harrow,  Charter- 
house, Cheltenham,  Rugby,  Clifton,  Westminster,  Marl- 
borough, Haileybury,  Winchester — by  Various  Authors. 
Pp.  vi  -j-  34:4:.    London. 

Contains  chapters  on  games  in  the  different  public 
schools.    Another  edition  of  No.  74. 

84.  School  Life  at  Winchester  College,  or  Reminis- 
cences of  a  Winchester  Junior.    Pp.  243.    London,  1866. 

An  easy,  popular  sketch  for  boys,  but  contains  data 
on  fagging  and  other  traditional  customs. 

B.  Discussion  of  Problems. 

85.  CooKSON^,  Christopher  (editor).  Essays  on 
.Secondary  Education.  Public  School  Athletics,  the  last 
essay  in  the  volume  by  Rev.  Lionel  Ford.    Oxford,  1898. 

This  essay  is  a  sane,  level-headed  protest  against  the 
extravagances  of  athleticism. 

86.  CoTTERiLL,  C.  C.  Suggested  Reforms  in  Pub- 
lic Schools.    Edinburgh  and  London,  1885. 


320  STUDENT  LIFE  AND  CUSTOMS. 

Chapter  II,  outdoor  exercise,  is  a  description  of  ex- 
isting conditions  of  games  in  secondary  schools. 

87.  Faeear,  Feedeeic  W.  The  Fall  of  Man  and 
other  Sermons.  (Sermon  VIII,  The  History  and  Hopes 
of  a  Public  School,  preached  before  Harrow  School  on 
Founder's  Day,  1859.)    London,  1882. 

Gives  an  excellent  idea  of  the  public-school  spirit. 

88.  FiNDLAY,  J.  J.  Arnold  of  Rugby:  his  School 
Life  and  Contributions  to  Education.    Cambridge,  1897. 

Contains  school  life  at  Rugby  ( Chapter  III  in  Stan- 
ley's Life  of  Arnold),  selected  sermons  preached  chiefly 
in  Rugby  Chapel,  essays  on  educational  topics,  and  a 
well-selected  critical  bibliography. 

89.  FiNDLAY,  J.  J.  Corporate  Life  and  Games  in 
Secondary  Schools.  Educational  Times,  vol.  lii,  p.  28 
(January  1,  1899). 

Presents  the  results  of  a  questionnaire,  with  discus- 
sion.    Relates  chiefly  to  public  day  schools. 

90.  Fitch,  Joshua.  Thomas  and  Matthew  Arnold 
and  their  Influence  on  English  Education.  New  York, 
1897. 

Best  brief  account  of  Arnold's  work  at  Rugby. 

91.  Lav^rence,  p.  (Miss).  Games  and  Athletics  in 
Secondary  Schools  for  Girls. 

Special  Reports  on  Educational  Subjects,  (English) 
Education  Department,  vol.  ii,  p.  145, 
Resumes  recent  progress. 

92.  Sharpless,  George.  The  Organization  of 
Games  out  of  School  for  the  Children  attending  Pub- 
lic Elementary  Schools  in  the  Large  Industrial  Centres 
as  Voluntarily  Undertaken  by  the  Teachers. 

Special  Reports  on  Educational  Subjects,  (English) 
Education  Department,  vol.  ii,  p.  159. 


APPENDIX.  321 

93.  Stanley,  Arthur  P.  The  Life  and  Corre- 
spondence of  Thomas  Arnold,  D.  D.  American  edition. 
New  York,  1845. 

Contains  the  best  account  of  Arnold's  internal  re- 
forms at  Rugby. 

94.  Thring,  Edward.  Education  and  School. 
London  and  Cambridge,  1867. 

Chapter  XVI  treats  of  internal  self-government, 
prepositors,  and  fagging.  Should  be  compared  with 
Arnold's  essays. 

95.  TooDHOUSE,  Mrs.  Physical  Education  in  the 
Sheffield  High  School  for  Girls. 

Special  Eeports  on  Educational  Subjects,  (English) 
Education  Department,  vol.  ii,  p.  133. 

96.  Die  Missionsvereine  der  offentlichen  Schulen  in 
England.  Deutsche  Zeitschrift  fiir  Auslandisches  Un- 
terrichtswesen.     Vol.  iv,  p.  275. 

C.  Articles  on  British  Athleticism. 

97.  Bradley,  A.  Granville.  The  Prominence  of 
Athleticism  in  England.  Atlantic  Monthly,  vol.  xlix, 
p.  92. 

A  violent  attack  upon  British  athleticism. 

98.  Edwardes,  Charles.  The  N'ew  Football  Mania. 
Nineteenth  Century,  vol.  xxxii,  p.  622. 

A  somewhat  lurid  article,  dealing  with  the  profes- 
sional aspects  of  football. 

99.  Jeyes,  S.  H.  Our  Gentlemanly  Failures.  Fort- 
nightly Review,  vol.  Ixvii,  p.  386. 

Claims  that  the  present  athletic  regime  in  English 
schools  produces  business  incapacity. 

100.  Richardson,  Benjamin  W.  Athleticism  in 
the  Scale.    Saturday  Review,  vol.  Ixxx,  p.  167. 

21 


322  STUDENT  LIFE  AND  CUSTOMS 

x\  clear  and  sane  protest  against  athleticism. 

101.  The  Mind  and  the  Body.  The  Spectator,  vol. 
Ixxvi,  p.  767. 

Points  out  that  athletic  interest  has  increased,  while 
purely  intellectual  interests  have  decreased,  at  the  Eng- 
lish universities. 

102.  Professional  Football.  All  the  Year  Eound, 
vol.  Ixxiii,  p.  558. 

A  favourable  but  moderate  view  of  professional  foot- 
ball. 

103.  A  Counter-Blast  to  Exercise.  The  Spectator, 
vol.  Ixix,  p.  492. 

A  mild  protest  against  the  prevailing  forms  of  Brit- 
ish athleticism. 

VI.  Student  Life  at  the  Scottish  Universities. 

104.  Eraser,  Norman.  Student  Life  at  Edinburgh 
University.    Paisley,  1884. 

Eelates  the  university  career  of  a  student  of  Pie- 
tistic  tendencies. 

105.  Grant,  Alexandee.  The  Story  of  the  Uni- 
versity of  Edinburgh  during  its  First  Three  Hundred 
Years.    Two  volumes.    London,  1884. 

Appendix  S  of  the  second  volume  contains  an  ac- 
count of  the  student  organizations  of  the  university. 

106.  Leys,  J.  Life  at  the  Scottish  Universities. 
National  Eeview,  vol.  viii,  p.  533. 

Written  from  an  English  standpoint. 

107.  Masson,  David.  Eeminiscences  of  Edinburgh 
University — Professors  and  Debating  Societies.  Mac- 
millan's  Magazine,  vol.  xi,  p.  123. 

A  valuable  estimate  of  the  value  of  debating  soci- 
eties in  the  university. 


APPENDIX.  323 

108.  N"iCHOL,  John.  Scotch  Universities,  their 
Friends  and  Foes.    Fortnightly  Eeview,  vol.  xl,  p.  639. 

A  useful  discussion  of  the  relation  of  the  Scotch 
universities  to  national  life. 

109.  Kait,  Egbert  Sangster.  The  Universities  of 
Aberdeen :  a  History.    Pp.  xii  +  382.    iVberdeen,  1895. 

Contains  incidental  references  to  Scottish  student 
life. 

110.  The  Scottish  Universities.  Xorth  British  Ee- 
view,  vol.  xiii,  p.  285. 

A  general  view  of  Scottish  education,  with  a  general 
comparison  of  the  university  systems  of  Germany,  Eng- 
land, and  Scotland. 

111.  Life  at  the  English  and  Scotch  Universities:  a 
Contrast.    The  Nation,  vol.  xxi,  p.  322. 

Contains  useful  statistics  of  Scotch  student  life. 

112.  North  Country  Students.  Cornhill  Magazine, 
vol.  xxxvii,  p.  452. 

Diffuse. 

113.  Scottish  University  Students.  All  the  Year 
Eound,  vol.  xliv,  p.  80. 

A  hostile  view,  written  with  an  Oxford  bias. 

114.  Student  Life  in  Scotland.  Cornhill  Magazine, 
vol.  i,  p.  366. 

An  excellent  article ;  describes  debating  societies  and 
social  life  in  the  universities. 

115.  Student  Life  in  Scotland.  Blackwood's  Maga- 
zine (American  edition),  vol.  xxxix,  pp.  135,  422. 

116.  College  Life  at  Glasgow.  Eraser's  Magazine, 
vol.  liii,  p.  505. 

Good  account  of  Scottish  student  life  in  the  thirties. 

117.  Scottish  Student  Life.  Chambers's  Journal, 
vol.  Ixxi,  p.  593. 


324  STUDENT  LIFE  AND  CUSTOMS. 

Gives  the  history  of  all  the  recent  movements  and 
changes  in  Scottish  student  life. 

YII.  General  Treatises  bearing  on  American 

Student  Life. 

A.  Worhs  covering  the  Entire  Field. 

118.  Hall,  B.  H.  A  Collection  of  College  Words 
and  Customs.    Pp.  508.    Cambridge,  1856. 

A  storehouse  of  material,  treating  of  the  early  peri- 
ods of  American  student  life. 

119.  Porter,  Noah.  The  American  Colleges  and  the 
American  Public.    Pp.  vi  +  285.     New  Haven,  1870. 

An  able  defence  of  existing  conditions  in  American 
colleges,  including  the  class  system. 

120.  Thwing,  Charles  F.  American  Colleges; 
their  Students  and  Work.    New  York,  1883. 

Chapter  V  treats  of  societies.  Chapter  VII  of  jour- 
nalism.   Well  written,  but  not  full. 

B.  Histories  and  Reminiscences  of  Particular  Institu- 
tions. 

121.  Bagg,  L.  H.  Four  Years  at  Yale.  By  a  Grad- 
uate of  '69.    Pp.  713.    New  Haven,  1871. 

A  full  account  of  student  customs,  usages,  and  soci- 
eties, well  written.  One  of  the  most  instructive  books 
on  American  student  life. 

122.  Baldwin,  Ebenezer.  Annals  of  Yale  College. 
Pp.  324.    New  Haven,  1831. 

123.  Bush,  George  Gary.  The  History  of  Higher 
Education  in  Massachusetts.  Pp.  445.  Washington, 
1891. 

Contains  many  useful  references  to  modern  student 
life  at  Harvard. 


APPENDIX.  325 

124.  Clark,  Willis  G.  The  History  of  Education 
in  Alabama  (1702-1889).   Pp.281.   Washington,  1889. 

Describes  student  life  in  the  South  in  ante-bellum 
days. 

125.  Cleavelaxd,  Nehemiah,  and  Packard,  Al- 
PHEUS  Spring.  History  of  Bowdoin  College,  with  Bio- 
graphical Sketches  of  its  Graduates  (1806-1879).  Pp. 
905.    Boston,  1882. 

The  standard  history  of  Bowdoin ;  contains  excellent 
accounts  of  debating  and  religious  societies. 

126.  Cutting,  George  E.  Student  Life  at  Amherst 
College:  its  Organizations,  their  Membership  and  His- 
tory.   Pp.  204.    Amherst,  1871. 

A  complete  account  of  all  forms  of  student  activity 
for  the  period  covered.  The  only  book  of  the  kind  thus 
far  published  in  the  United  States.  Probably  the  most 
valuable  single  work  for  American  student  life. 

127.  Gushing,  Thomas.  Undergraduate  Life  Sixty 
Years  Ago.     Harvard  Graduate  Magazine,  vol.  i,  p.  547. 

128.  DuRFEE,  Calvin.  A  History  of  Williams  Col- 
lege.   Pp.  432.    Boston,  1860. 

A  standard  work,  with  incidental  accounts  of  stu- 
dent life. 

129.  Hitchcock,  Edward.  Eeminiscences  of  Am- 
herst College,  Historical,  Scientific,  Biographical,  and 
Autobiographical.    Pp.  412.    Northampton,  1863. 

Important  for  the  study  of  the  debating  society  and 
rise  of  the  fraternity. 

130.  Lippincott  Series  on  Social  Life  in  American 
Colleges,  in  Lippincott's  Magazine,  vols,  xxxix  and  xl 
(1887-^88). 

Slight  and  superficial  with  two  or  three  exceptions; 
the  series  runs  as  follows : 


326  STUDENT  LIFE  AND  CUSTOMS. 

Wendell,  Barret.  Social  Life  at  Harvard,  vol. 
xxxix,  p.  152. 

Hopkins,  E.  M.  Social  Life  at  Princeton,  vol. 
xxxix,  p.  677. 

Spencer,  E.  Social  Life  at  Cornell,  vol.  xxxix, 
p.  999. 

Minor,  J.  B.,  Jr.  Social  Life  at  the  University  of 
Virginia,  vol.  xl,  p.  98. 

Jenks,  a.  E.     Social  Life  at  Yale,  vol.  xl,  p.  390. 

McDonald,  J.  R.  Social  Life  at  Williams  College, 
vol.  xl,  p.  572. 

EouNDS,  R.  S.  Social  Life  at  Amherst  College,  vol. 
xl,  p.  737. 

131.  MacLean,  John.  History  of  the  College  of 
!N'ew  Jersey  from  its  Origin  in  1746  to  the  Commence- 
ment of  1854.  Two  volumes.  Pp.  414  +  450.  Phila- 
delphia, 1877. 

Contains  many  data  on  student  habits  and  morals  at 
the  beginning  of  the  century. 

132.  McLaughlin,  Andrew  C.  History  of  Higher 
Education  in  Michigan.    Pp.  179.    Washington,  1891. 

133.  Meriavether,  Colyer.  History  of  Higher 
Education  in  South  Carolina.  Pp.  247.  AYashington, 
1889. 

Contains  an  interesting  description  of  early  South- 
ern student  life. 

134.  Merriam,  Lucius  Salisbury.  Higher  Educa- 
tion in  Tennessee.    Pp.  287.    Washignton,  1893. 

Describes  modern  conditions  at  Vanderbilt  Univer- 
sity. 

135.  Parker,  Leonard  E.  Higher  Education  in 
Iowa.    Pp.  190.    Washington,  1893. 

Some  incidental  references  of  value. 


APPENDIX.  327 

13G.  Peabody,  Andrew  P.  Harvard  Eeminis- 
cences.    Pp.  216.    Boston,  1888. 

An  interesting  description  of  the  old-time  relations 
between  faculty  and  students. 

137.  Pierce,  Bexjamix.  A  History  of  Harvard 
University  from  its  Foundation  in  the  Year  1636  to 
the  Period  of  the  American  Eevolution;  Pp.  316.  Ap- 
pendix, pp.  153.    Cambridge,  1833. 

138.  Porter,  Johx  A.  (editor).  Sketches  of  Yale 
Life :  Being  Sketches,  Humorous  and  Descriptive,  from 
College  Magazines  and  Xewspapers.  Pp.  288.  Wash- 
ington, 1886. 

139.  Powell,  Lymax  P.  The  History  of  Educa- 
tion in  Delaware.     Pp.  186.    Washington,  1893. 

Describes  student  life  in  a  small  college. 

140.  QuixcY,  JosiAH.  The  History  of  Harvard  Uni- 
versity.   Two  volumes.    Pp.  612  +  726.    Boston,  1860. 

Valuable  for  colonial  student  life.  Appendix  con- 
tains documents  showing  the  habits  and  customs  of  the 
students. 

141.  Scribner  Series  on  Undergraduate  Life  in 
American  L^niversities.  Volumes  xxi,  xxii  (1897), 
Scribner's  Magazine. 

An  able  succession  of  articles,  much  superior  to  the 
Lippincott  series.  The  descriptions  of  Princeton  and 
Harvard  life  are  particularly  good.  The  titles  run  as 
follows : 

Marttx,  Edw^ird  S.  Undergraduate  Life  at  Har- 
vard, vol.  xxi,  p.  531. 

Alexaxder,  jA:\rES  W.  Undergraduate  Life  at 
Princeton,  vol.  xxi,  p.  663. 

HoAVLAXD,  Hexry  E.  Undergraduate  Life  at  Yale, 
vol.  xxii,  p.  1. 


328  STUDENT  LIFE  AND  CUSTOMS. 

142.  Smith,  Baxter  Perry.  A  History  of  Dart- 
mouth College.    Pp.  474.    Boston,  1878. 

Another  standard  authority,  with  incidental  treat- 
ment of  student  life. 

143.  Smith,  Charles  Lee.  The  History  of  Educa- 
tion in  North  Carolina.    Pp.  179.     Washington,  1888. 

Describes  debating  societies. 

144.  Start,  Alaric  Bertrand  (editor  in  chief). 
History  of  Tufts  College,  published  by  the  Class  of 
1897.    Pp.  382.    Tufts  College,  1896. 

Treats  of  student  life  much  in  detail.  Valuable 
because  it  describes  many  recent  experiments  with  stu- 
dent institutions. 

145.  Steiner,  Bernard  C.  The  History  of  Educa- 
tion in  Connecticut.    Pp.  300.    Washington,  1893. 

The  sections  on  student  life  in  the  history  of  Yale 
are  excellent  epitomes  of  much  longer  chapters  in  the 
Yale  Book. 

146.  Storey,  Moorfield.  Harvard  in  the  Sixties. 
An  address  before  the  Har^^tard^  Memorial  Society.  Pp. 
24.    Boston,  1869. 

One  of  the  best  descriptions  of  the  old  college 
life. 

147.  Thayer,  W.  R.  An  Historical  Sketch  of  Har- 
vard University  from  its  Foundation  to  May,  1890.  Pp. 
6G.    Cambridge,  1890. 

A  brief,  comprehensive  sketch  of  unusual  merit. 

148.  Thorpe,  Francis  Newton.  Benjamin  Frank- 
lin and  the  University  of  Pennsylavnia.  Pp.  450.  Wash- 
ington, 1893. 

Includes  a  separate  chapter  on  the  history  of  stu- 
dent organizations  within  the  university. 

149.  ToLMAN^  William  Howe.     The   History  of 


APPENDIX.  329 

Higher  Education  in  Ehode  Island.     Pp.  210.     Wash- 
ington, 1894. 

Sketches  student  life  at  Brown  Universit3^ 

150.  Tyler,  W.  S.  History  of  Amherst  College 
during  its  First  Half  Century  (1821-1871).  Pp.  671. 
Springfield,  1873. 

Emphasizes  the  religious  life  and  organizations  of 
the  college. 

151.  Wallace,  George  R.  Princeton  Sketches. 
The  History  of  Nassau  Hall.    Pp.  200.    N"ew  York,  1893. 

Deals  with  the  fraternity  problem  at  Princeton. 

152.  Welch,  Lewis  Sheldon,  and  Camp,  Walter. 
Yale,  her  Campus,  Class-rooms,  and  Athletics.  Pp.  628 
Boston,  1899. 

An  extended  account  of  all  forms  of  student  activ- 
ity; one  of  the  most  valuable  recent  books. 

153.  Reminiscences  of  Scenes  and  Characters  in  Col- 
lege by  a  Graduate  of  Yale  of  the  Class  of  1821.  Pp. 
229.    New  Haven,  1847. 

154.  Sketches  of  Yale  College,  with  Numerous  An- 
ecdotes, by  a  Member  of  the  Institution.  Pp.  192.  New 
York,  1843. 

YIII.  Literature  of  the  Class  System. 
A.  College  Discipline. 

155.  Bartlett,  S.  C.  College  Disturbances.  The 
Forum,  vol.  iv,  p.  424  (1888). 

The  author  holds  public  opinion  largely  responsible 
for  student  outbreaks. 

156.  GoDKiN",  E.  L.  College  Discipline.  The  Na- 
tion, vol.  xlviii,  p.  154  (1889). 

Shows  relation  between  college  discipline  and  the 
low  estimate  of  college  professors  by  graduates. 


330  STUDENT  LIFE  AND  CUSTOMS. 

157.  Jordan,  David  Starr.  College  Discipline. 
North  American  Eeview,  vol.  clxv,  p.  403  (1897). 

Author  claims  that  discipline  should  be  reduced  to 
a  minimum,  that  undesirable  students  should  be 
sent  home;  the  article  also  treats  of  hazing  and  rush- 
ing. 

158.  McCosH,  James.  Discipline  in  American  Col- 
leges. North  American  Eeview,  vol.  cxxvi,  p.  428 
(1878). 

Defends  the  conservative  position;  holds  that  stu- 
dents should  be  closely  watched ;  touches  on  hazing  and 
college  disturbances. 

159.  QuiNCY,  J.  P.  Coercion  in  the  Later  Stages  of 
Education.    Old  and  New,  vol.  viii,  p.  44  (1873). 

A  plea  for  a  more  liberal  view  of  discipline ;  objects 
to  the  recitation  marking  system  and  to  police  duties  of 
professors. 

160.  Shaler,  N.  S.  The  Problem  of  Discipline  in 
Higher  Education.  Atlantic  Monthly,  vol.  Ixiv,  p.  24 
(1889). 

Treats  of  the  genesis  and  development  of  college  dis- 
cipline at  Harvard ;  important. 

161.  College  Instruction  and  Discipline.  American 
Quarterly  Eeview,  vol.  ix,  p.  283  (1831). 

A  general  discussion;  the  writer  takes  a  conserva- 
tive standpoint  and  opposes  all  forms  of  student  co- 
operation. 

162.  College  Discipline.  The  Critic,  vol.  i,  p.  204 
(1881). 

Shows  the  impossibility  of  a  great  scholar  serving 
as  policeman;  the  standpoint  of  the  writer  radical. 


APPENDIX.  331 

B.  Descriptive  of  Class  Life  and  Customs. 

163.  Alden,  Samuel,  and  Stetson,  Charles.  The 
Eebelliard  or  Eebellion  Poem :  an  Heroic  Poem  in  Five 
Cantos.    Pp.  36.    Amherst,  1869. 

A  burlesque  on  the  students  participating  in  the 
great  rebellion  of  Harvard. 

164.  Bagg,  Lyman  H.  The  Bully  Club  (of  Yale). 
Yale  Book,  vol.  ii,  p.  460. 

An  excellent  description  of  one  of  the  most  unique 
of  American  student  institutions. 

165.  Butler,  Daniel.  Commons  (at  Yale).  Yale 
Book,  vol.  i,  p.  297. 

Throws  light  on  the  causes  of  class  rebellions. 

166.  CusHiNG,  T.,  and  Allen,  T.  P.  Town  and 
Gown  in  Old  Times.  Harvard  Graduate  Magazine,  vol. 
viii,  p.  15. 

A  brief  account  of  two  early  difficulties  at  Harvard. 

167.  Hall,  Benjamin  Homer.  Commons  (Har- 
vard).   Harvard  Book,  vol.  ii,  p.  75. 

168.  Lowell,  James  Eussell.  Class  Day.  Har- 
vard Book,  vol.  ii,  p.  157. 

Important  for  early  history  of  the  class. 

169.  Northrop,  Cyrus.  Commencement  (Yale). 
Yale  Book,  vol.  i,  p.  306. 

170.  QuiNCY,  Edmund.  Commencement  Day  (Har- 
vard).   Harvard  Book,  vol.  ii,  p.  147. 

171.  Todd,  Henry  Alfred.  Commencement  Day 
(Princeton).    Princeton  Book,  p.  179. 

172.  Webber,  Samuel.  A  Narrative  of  the  Pro- 
ceedings of  the  Corporation  of  Harvard  College  relative 
to  the  Late  Disorders  in  that  Seminary.  Pp.  19.  Cam- 
bridge, 1807. 


332  STUDENT  LIFE  AND  CUSTOMS. 

Presents  the  official  side  in  the  great  rebellion. 

173.  Don  Quixotes  at  College,  or  a  History  of  the 
Gallant  Adventures  lately  achieved  by  the  Combined 
Students  of  Harvard  University,  interspersed  by  Some 
Facetious  Keasonings — by  a  Senior.  Pp.  20.  Bos- 
ton, 1807. 

Another  burlesque  on  the  rebellious  students  of  Har- 
vard. 

174.  Circular  (of  Students  in  reference  to  the 
Eebellion  of  1834).     Pp.  12   (1834). 

Official  presentation  of  the  case  for  the  students. 

IX.  Literature  of  the  Debating  Society. 
A.  Descriptive. 

175.  Baker,  George  P.  Debating  at  Harvard. 
Harvard  Graduate  Magazine,  vol.  vii,  p.  363  (1899). 

An  account  of  the  present  method  of  training  inter- 
collegiate debaters  at  Harvard. 

176.  Brodt,  p.  E.  Debating  Societies  at  Columbia. 
Columbia  University  Quarterly,  vol.  i,  p.  47. 

An  account  of  early  debating  societies  at  Columbia. 
The  article  contains  instructive  criticism. 

177.  Cameron,  Henry  C.  The  American  Whig 
Society.    Princeton  Book,  p.  184. 

A  brief  sketch  of  one  of  the  Princeton  societies. 

178.  Chamberlain,  D.  H.  Debating  and  Parlia- 
mentary Practice  at  Yale;  a  Speech  before  the  Yale 
Alumni  Association.     New  York,  1896. 

A  criticism  of  the  methods  of  teaching  English  and 
coaching  debaters  then  in  force  at  Yale. 

179.  Coe,  Edward  B.  The  Literary  Societies  (of 
Yale).    Yale  Book,  vol.  i,  p.  307. 


APPENDIX.  333 

Best  existing  account  of  the  pre-Revolutionary  de- 
bating societies. 

180.  Cornell  Era,  March  30,  1898.  Pennsylvania- 
Cornell  debate,  1898.  Subject:  Reading  as  a  Qualifi- 
cation for  Immigrants.     Ithaca,  1898. 

A  verbatim  account  of  an  important  intercollegiate 
debate. 

181.  Gardxer,  Percy.  Impressions  of  American 
Universities.  Nineteenth  Century,  vol.  xlv,  p.  102  (Jan- 
uary, 1899). 

Contains  severe  criticism  of  intercollegiate  debating 
from  an  English  standpoint. 

182.  HoTCHKiss,  Thomas  W.,  Jr.  The  Secret  So- 
cieties of  Princeton  University.  Magazine  of  American 
History,  vol.  xxvii,  p.  17  (1891). 

A  fair  account  of  the  Princeton  societies. 

183.  Jacobus,  Melaxcthox  W.  The  Cliosophic 
Society.    Princeton  Book,  p.  201. 

A  brief  sketch  of  the  second  Princeton  society. 
18-4.  JoHXSTOX,  W.  C.     The  Literary  Societies  of 
Yale  College.    University  Quarterly,  vol.  i,  p.  115  (1860). 
An  excellent  account  of  society  rivalry. 

185.  Miller,  Mariox  Mills.  Debate  in  American 
Colleges.    Bachelor  of  Arts,  vol.  ii,  p.  208. 

A  brief  article  of  slight  importance. 

186.  Peabody,  Fraxcis  Greexwood.  The  Insti- 
tute of  1770.    Harvard  Book,  vol.  ii,  p.  341. 

An  exceedingly  brief  account  of  the  society  which 
was  for  many  years  the  chief  debating  club  of  Harvard. 

187.  RiXGWALT,  Ralph  Curtis.  Intercollegiate 
Debating.    The  Forum,  vol.  xxii,  p.  633  (1897). 

A  history  of  modern  intercollegiate  debating,  with 
an  exposition  of  present  methods. 


334  STUDENT  LIFE  AND  CUSTOMS. 

188.  Vrooman,  Carl.  College  Debating.  The 
Arena,  vol.  x,  p.  677. 

An  exposition  of  the  purposes  of  the  Intercollegiate 
Debating  Union. 

189.  College  Oratory  in  the  West.  Review  of  Re- 
views, vol.  xi,  p.  665. 

An  account  of  the  Western  State  oratorical  con- 
tests, with  a  characterization  of  the  speeches,  and  copi- 
ous extracts. 

B.  Principles  and  Pedagogy  of  Debating. 

190.  Baker^  George  Pierce.  The  Principles  of 
Argumentation.    Boston  and  New  York,  1895. 

A  standard  manual. 

191.  Brookings,  W.  D.,  and  Ringwalt,  R.  C. 
Briefs  for  Debate,  with  an  Introduction  by  Alfred  Bush- 
nell  Hart.    New  York,  1896. 

The  introduction  contains  an  exposition  of  the  prin- 
ciples of  modern  intercollegiate  debating. 

192.  Chamberlain,  D.  H.  The  Value  of  College 
Literary  Societies.  University  Quarterly,  vol.  iii,  p.  348 
(1861). 

Somewhat  vague. 

193.  GoDKiN,  E.  L.  Collegiate  Oratory.  The  Na- 
tion, vol.  xxvi,  p.  38. 

A  severe  criticism  of  the  rhetorical  school  of  ora- 
tory; favours  incisive  debating  instead. 

194.  HiGGiNSON,  Thomas  Wentv^orth.  Hints  on 
Writing  and  Speech-making.    New  York. 

195.  Holyoake,  George  Jacob.  Public  Speaking 
and  Debate.  A  Manual  for  Advocates  and  Agitators. 
Second  edition.     Boston,  1896. 

196.  McElligott,  James  N.     The  American  De- 


APPENDIX.  335 

bater:  Being  a  Plain  Exposition  of  the  Principles  and 
Practice  of  Public  Debate.    New  York,  1877. 

An  old  and  influential  manual ;  now  out  of  date. 

197.  McElligott,  James  N.  Debating  a  Means  of 
Educational  Discipline.  American  Journal  of  Educa- 
tion (Barnard^s),  vol.  i,  p.  495. 

A  diffuse  article  representing  the  old  standpoint, 
but  not  witlK)ut  suggestions  of  value. 

198.  Robinson,  William  Callahan.  Forensic 
Oratory;  a  Manual  for  Advocates.    Boston,  1893. 

199.  RowTON,  Feedeeic.  How  to  Conduct  a  De- 
bate.   New  York. 

200.  Wpiately,  Richaed.  Danger  of  Debating  So- 
cieties to  Young  Men.  Bentley's  Miscellany,  vol.  xix, 
p.  615. 

A  strong  protest,  almost  a  philippic  against  the  de- 
bating society. 

201.  Discussion  Classes.  Chambers's  Edinburgh 
Journal,  vol.  x,  p.  107. 

An  excellent  resume  of  the  advantages  of  debating 
societies. 

X.  Liteeatuee  of  the  Fraternity  System. 
A.  Descriptive. 

202.  Baied,  William  Raimond.  American  College 
Fraternities. 

A  descriptive  analysis  of  the  fraternity  system  in 
the  colleges  of  the  United  States.  Fifth  edition.  Pp. 
438.    New  York,  1898. 

The  one  great  authority  on  this  subject.  It  includes 
a  general  sketch  of  the  fraternity  system,  the  history  of 
each  society,  statistical  tables,  and  a  vindication  of  the 
fraternity  principle. 


336  STUDENT  LIFE  AND  CUSTOMS. 

203.  Cook,  F.  G.  The  Delta  Upsilon  at  Har- 
vard. Harvard  Graduate  Magazine,  vol.  viii,  p.  321 
(1899). 

204.  Hasty  Pudding  Club.  Eleventh  Catalogue  of 
the  Officers  and  Members — containing  a  Brief  Sketch 
of  the  Club  and  an  Index  of  Names.  Pp.  301.  Cam- 
bridge, 1891. 

205.  Harvard  Book.  (History  of  the  Typical  Har- 
vard societies  by  the  following  authors)  : 

BuswELL,  Henry  Foster.  Pi  Eta  Society,  vol.  ii, 
p.  409. 

Clark,  Lester  Williams.  The  Alpha  Delta  Phi, 
vol.  ii,  p.  389. 

Dana,  Eichard  Henry.  The  Phi  Beta  Kappa  So- 
ciety, vol.  ii,  p.  343. 

Deming,  Horace  Edward.  The  Everett  Athenae- 
um, vol.  ii,  p.  412. 

Grant,  Egbert.    The  A.  D.  Club,  vol.  ii,  p.  392. 

Kidder,  Camillus  George.  The  Signet  Society, 
vol.  ii,  p.  414. 

Longfellow,  Samuel.  The  Hasty  Pudding  Club, 
vol.  ii,  p.  353. 

Perkins,  Augustus  Thorndike.  The  Porcellian 
Club,  vol.  ii,  p.  348. 

Warren,  Samuel  Dennis.  The  0.  K.  Society,  vol. 
ii,  p.  396. 

These  sketches  carry  the  history  of  the  organiza- 
tions as  far  as  the  late  seventies. 

206.  Packard,  Lewis  E.  The  Phi  Beta  Kappa  So- 
ciety (of  Yale).    Yale  Book,  vol.  i,  p.  324. 

207.  Piper,  P.  F.  College  Fraternities.  The  Cos- 
mopolitan, vol.  xxii,  p.  641  (1897). 

A  general  sketch  of  the  fraternity  movement. 


APPENDIX.  337 

208.  Porter,  Johx  Addisox.  College  Fraternities. 
Century  Magazine,  vol.  xiv,  p.  749  (1888). 

An  account  of  the  different  forms  of  college  fra- 
ternities. 

209.  Eaxdolpii,  Eugexe  H.  L.  Greek-Letter  Soci- 
eties in  American  Colleges.  Xew  England  Magazine, 
vol.  xxiii,  p.  70  (1897). 

Best  general  sketch  of  the  fraternities,  written  from 
a  sympathetic  standpoint. 

210.  Thayer,  Willia:^!  R.  Shall  we  have  a  Uni- 
versity Club?  Harvard  Graduate  Magazine,  vol.  iii, 
p.  468. 

Contains  an  excellent  account  of  the  Harvard  soci- 
eties both  under  the  old  and  the  new  regimes. 

211.  AYHiT:\rAX,  Edward  A.  The  Pi  Eta  Society. 
Harvard  Graduate  Magazine,  vol.  iii,  p.  486. 

B.  Controversial. 

212.  AiKEX,  E.  E.  The  Secret  Society  System. 
New  Haven,  1882. 

An  attack  on  fraternities  in  general,  and  Yale  fra- 
ternities in  particular;  intensely  partisan. 

213.  Jacobs,  A.  B.  The  Greek-Letter  Societies. 
Detroit,  1879. 

214.  Kellogg,  H.  L.  College  Secret  Societies.  Pp. 
88.    Chicago,  1874. 

Another  bitter  attack;  contains  considerable  data  of 
value. 

215.  Lathrop,  W.  W.  College  Secret  Societies. 
University  Quarterly,  vol.  iii,  p.  273  (1861). 

A  strong  argument  against  the  secret-society  prin- 
ciple. 

216.  McCosH,  J.,  Seelye,  J.,  Adams,  H.  C,  and 

22 


338  STUDENT  LIFE  AND  CUSTOMS. 

others.  Interchange  (on  college  fraternities).  The 
Academy,  vol.  ii,  p.  372  (October,  1887). 

Contains  statements  of  views  pro  and  con  by  a  num- 
ber of  prominent  American  educators. 

317.  Occident  Publishing  Company.  An  Account  of 
the  Greek-Letter  Fraternities  in  the  University  of  Cali- 
fornia, republished  from  the  Files  of  the  Occident 
newspaper.    Berkeley,  1883. 

An  onslaught  on  the  fraternities. 

218.  Porter,  John  Addison.  The  Society  System 
of  Yale  College.  The  New-Englander,  vol.  xliii,  p.  377 
(1884). 

A  strong  defence  of  the  society  system  at  Yale. 

219.  Sanborn,  Alvan  F.  The  Advantages  of  Col- 
lege Fraternities.  The  Academy,  vol.  v,  p.  386 
(1890). 

A  one-sided  plea  for  the  fraternity. 

220.  White,  Andrev^  D.  College  Fraternities. 
The  Forum,  vol.  iii,  p.  243. 

A  valuable  article;  favours  the  fraternity. 

221.  White,  E.  E.  Eeport  to  the  Board  of  Trus- 
tees of  Purdue  University. 

A  violent  attack  on  the  fraternities. 

222.  Secret  Societies  in  College.  The  Critic,  vol.  iv, 
pp.  109, 137  (1884). 

A  well-written  article,  dealing  largely  with  condi- 
tions at  Yale. 

XL  The  Literature  of  College  Athletics. 
A.  Descriptive. 

223.  Camp,  Walter,  and  Deland,  Lorin  F.  Foot- 
ball.   Boston  and  New  York,  1896. 

Discusses  the  game  from  every  possible  standpoint. 


APPENDIX.  339 

but  with  most  attention  on  the  technique  of  training 
and  strategy. 

22i.  Harvard  Book.  (History  of  the  different 
branches  of  athletics  by  the  following  authors)  : 

Ckowxixshield,  Benjamin  William.  Boating, 
vol.  ii,  p.  191. 

HiGGiNsox,  Thomas  Wextworth.  The  Gymna- 
sium, vol.  ii,  p.  186. 

Saxborx,  AYilliam  Delaxo.  Baseball,  vol.  ii,  p. 
268. 

225.  Princeton  Book.  (History  of  the  different 
branches  of  athletics  by  the  following  authors)  : 

Smith,  Wiltox  M.    Baseball,  p.  417. 
Stewart,  David.    Football,  p.  432. 

226.  Thayer,  Frederick  W.  Harvard's  Loss  of 
Athletic  Prestige.  Harvard  Graduate  Magazine,  vol. 
i,p.  31. 

Describes  methods  of  athletic  organization  at  Har- 
vard. 

227.  Yale  Book.  (History  of  the  different  branches 
of  athletics  by  the  following  authors)  : 

Bagg,  Lymax  H.    Boating,  vol.  ii. 
Browx,    Fayette    W.      Athletic    Sports    (track), 
vol.  ii. 

BusHXELL,  Samuel  C.    Baseball,  vol.  ii. 
Peters,  Johx  P.    Football,  vol.  ii. 

B.  Controversial  and  Pedagogical. 

228.  BoYKix,  James  C.  Physical  Training.  Ee- 
port  of  the  United  States  Commissioner  of  Education, 
1891-^92,  vol.  i,  p.  451. 

An  historical  sketch  of  physical  education. 

229.  Camp,    Walter.      Athletic    Extravagance    in 


340  STUDENT  LIFE  AND  CUSTOMS. 

Training,  in  Playing,  and  in  Describing.     Outing,  vol. 
xxvi,  p.  81. 

A  plea  for  moderation. 

230.  Darling,  E.  A.  The  Effects  of  Training. 
Harvard  Graduate  Magazine,  vol.  viii,  p.  21. 

A  careful  study  of  the  physiological  effects  of 
training. 

231.  Davis,  Andrew  M.  F.  College  Athletics.  At- 
lantic Monthly,  vol.  li,  p.  677. 

Contains  some  suggestions  of  merit. 

232.  Emmons,  Egbert  W.,  2d.  Needed  Football 
Eeforms.    Harvard  Graduate  Magazine,  vol.  iii,  p.  318. 

A  clear  statement  of  the  main  issues  raised  by  ath- 
leticism. 

233.  Gardiner,  A.  P.  The  Graduate  Athletic  As- 
sociation.   Harvard  Graduate  Magazine,  vol.  vi,  p.  344. 

Treats  of  the  organization  of  coaching. 

234.  Ggdkin,  E.  L.  Glorification  in  Athletics.  The 
Nation,  vol.  Iv,  p.  406. 

Calls  attention  to  the  bad  results  of  athletic  no- 
toriety. 

235.  Ggdkin,  E.  L.  The  Athletic  Craze.  The  Na- 
tion, vol.  Ivii,  p.  422. 

A  pungent  criticism  of  the  prevailing  methods  of 
athletic  training  and  management. 

236.  Ggdkin,  E.  L.  Athletics  and  Health.  The 
Nation,  vol.  lix,  p.  457. 

A  sharp  attack  on  athleticism;  claims  that  watch- 
ing football  games  is  a  poor  substitute  for  moderate 
exercise. 

237.  Hart,  Albert  Bushnell.  The  Status  of  Ath- 
letics in  American  Colleges.  Atlantic  Monthly,  vol. 
Ixvi,  p.  63. 


APPENDIX,  341 

A  history  of  the  problems  of  athletic  organization. 

238.  Hartwell,  Edward  Mussey.  Physical  Train- 
ing. Eeport  of  the  United  States  Commissioner  of 
Education,  1897-'98,  vol.  i,  p.  487. 

A  general  history  of  physical  training;  criticises 
American  college  athletics  from  the  standpoint  of  sci- 
entific physical  training. 

239.  Hemenway,  Augustus,  and  others.  Impor- 
tant Suggestions  in  Athletics,  being  the  Eeport  of  the 
Committee  on  Physical  Training,  Athletic  Sports,  and 
Sanitary  Condition  of  Buildings.  Harvard  Graduate 
Magazine,  vol.  vi,  p.  191. 

Outlines  the  athletic  policy  of  Harvard. 

240.  Jones,  Oliver  S.  Morality  in  College  Ath- 
letics.   North  American  Eeview,  vol.  clx,  p.  638. 

Contains  some  suggestive  criticism;  objects  to  loaf- 
ing in  connection  with  athletics  and  to  professionalism. 

241.  EiCHARDS,  Eugexe  L.  Intercollegiate  Ath- 
letics and  Faculty  Control.    Outing,  vol.  xxvi^  p.  325. 

Written  from  the  athlete's  standpoint ;  advises  that 
faculty  control  be  limited  to  smallest  possible  extent. 

242.  EiCHARDS,  Eugene  L.  College  Athletics. 
Popular  Science  Monthly,  vol.  xxiv,  pp.  446-587. 

A  thoughtful  and  suggestive  article,  with  a  strong 
athletic  bias. 

243.  Taussig,  F.  W.  A  Professor's  View  of  Athlet- 
ics.   Harvard  Graduate  Magazine,  vol.  iii,  p.  305. 

An  article  remarkable  for  its  moderation  and  in- 
sight. 

244.  Thayer,  W.  E.  Class  Honours  and  Athletics. 
Harvard  Graduate  Magazine,  vol.  viii,  p.  194. 

Shows  a  close  relation  between  the  two.  The  author 
exhibits  tables  of  honour  men. 


342  STUDENT  LIFE  AND  CUSTOMS. 

245.  Walker,  Francis  A.  College  Athletics. 
Harvard  Graduate  Magazine,  vol.  ii,  p.  1. 

A  strong  vindication  of  athletics ;  this  article  is  re- 
published in  the  author's  educational  essays. 

246.  White,  John  Williams.  The  Constitution, 
Authority,  and  Policy  of  the  Committee  on  the  Kegula- 
tion  of  Athletic  Sports  (at  Harvard).  Harvard  Grad- 
uate Magazine,  vol.  i,  p.  209. 

An  account  of  one  of  the  most  interesting  recent 
experiments  in  athletic  organization. 

247.  Whitney,  Caspar  (Department  of  Amateur 
Sport,  in  Harper's  Weekly). 

Contains  much  intelligent  ciriticism  of  current  ath- 
letic methods. 

248.  Young,  C.  A.  College  Athletic  Sports.  The 
Forum,  vol.  ii,  p.  142. 

The  author  advocates  a  moderate  control  of  ath- 
letics. 

249.  The  Outreachings  of  Athletics.  The  Nation, 
vol.  Ix,  p.  235. 

An  anonymous  correspondent  deals  with  the  de- 
moralizing results  of  college  athletics  on  preparatory 
schools — ^noting  phases  of  professionalism. 

250.  Should  Professionals  be  employed  in  College 
Athletics?    Bachelor  of  Arts,  vol.  i,  p.  559. 

A  strong  negative  given  by  a  Harvard  man,  the 
affirmative  position  taken  by  a  Cornell  graduate. 

XII.  Literature  of  Student  Self-government. 

251.  BiGHAM,  John.  An  Instructive  Experiment  in 
College  Government.  Educational  Eeview,vol.  iii,p.  162. 

A  brief  and  sympathetic  account  of  the  Amherst  ex- 
periment. 


APPENDIX.  343 

252.  Bowdoin  College.  Articles  of  Agreement  be- 
tween the  Faculty  and  Students  of  Bowdoin  College  for 
the  Administration  of  Justice  in  the  College  (1894). 

253.  ScHURMAX,  Jacob  Gould.  Eeport  of  the 
President  of  Cornell  University,  1894-'95. 

Supports  the  honour  system  strongly. 

254.  Ferxald,  M.  C.  Co-operative  Government. 
Proceedings  of  the  National  Educational  Association, 
1890,  p.  Q8o. 

An  account  of  the  plan  of  self-government  at  the 
University  of  Maine. 

255.  Gregory,  John  M.  An  Experiment  in  Col- 
lege Government.  International^  Eeview,  vol.  x,  p.  510 
(1881). 

An  excellent  sketch  of  the  experiment  at  the  Univer- 
sity of  Illinois. 

256.  McKexzie,  James  C.  Honour  in  Student 
Life.    School  Review,  vol.  vii,  p.  69  (1899). 

A  discussion  of  the  honour  system  in  college  ex- 
aminations. 

257.  Peabody,  Selim  H.  An  Educational  Experi- 
ment. Proceedings  of  the  National  Educational  Asso- 
ciation, 1889,  p.  539. 

An  account  of  the  decline  and  fall  of  student  self- 
governm.ent  at  the  University  of  Illinois ;  author's  atti- 
tude that  of  hostility  to  the  experiment. 

258.  Smith,  C.  H.  Modern  Bowdoin.  The  Congre- 
gationalist,  June  21,  1894. 

Contains  a  brief  sketch  of  the  Bowdoin  scheme  of 
self-government. 

259.  Stanford  University.  Constitutions  of  the  As- 
sociated Students  of  the  Leland  Stanford  Junior  Uni- 
versity.    Palto  Alto,  1896. 


344:  STUDENT  LIFE  AND  CUSTOMS. 

Contains  the  constitution  of  the  student  body  and 
all  subordinate  organizations. 

260.  Stevens,  W.  Le  Conte.  Self-Government  in 
Colleges.  Popular  Science  Monthly,  vol.  xix,  p.  697 
(1881). 

A  letter  to  the  editor  of  the  Popular  Science  Month- 
ly, giving  the  history  of  some  early  experiments  in  stu- 
dent self-government. 

261.  Tulane  University  of  Louisiana.  Student 
Handbook  (containing  the  Constitution  of  the  Aca- 
demic Corps).    Revised,  1898. 

XIII.  Literature  of  Student  Press. 

262.  Amherst.  The  Amherst  Student.  Odd  vol- 
umes from  1879.  to  1896.    Amherst. 

263.  Anderson,  G.  W.  College  Journalism.  Wil- 
liams's Literary  Monthly,  vol.  i,  p.  311  (1886). 

An  excellent  article,  indicating  the  functions  of  col- 
lege journalism. 

264.  Bradley,  W.  A.  Undergraduate  Publications 
(at  Columbia).  Columbia  University  Quarterly,  vol.  i, 
p.  358;  vol.  ii,  p.  27  (1899). 

An  account  of  the  early  student  publications  at  Co- 
lumbia ;  an  excellent  sketch. 

265.  Carter,  Franklin.  College  Magazine  (at 
Yale).    Yale  Book,  vol.  i,  p.  338. 

A  sketch  of  Yale  journalism. 

266.  Columbia  University  Quarterly.  Two  volumes. 
New  York,  1898-1900. 

A  graduate  magazine,  publishing  notes  and  articles 
of  importance  on  student  life. 

267.  Harvard  Graduate  Magazine.  Eight  volumes. 
Boston,  1892-1900. 


APPENDIX.  345 

A  graduate  quarterly,  publishing  important  articles 
on  student  life,  besides  an  intelligent  and  compre- 
hensive chronicle  of  student  organizations  from  year  to 
year. 

268.  Harvard  Magazine.  Ten  volumes.  Cam- 
bridge, 1854--*64. 

A  high-class  literary  and  critical  magazine  pub- 
lished by  the  students  of  Harvard. 

269.  Harvard  Monthly.  Volumes  I  to  XXVII. 
Cambridge,  1885-1900. 

The  present  literary  magazine  of  the  Harvard  un- 
dergraduates, representative  of  the  best  type  of  Ameri- 
can college  journalism. 

270.  Harvard  Lyceum.  One  volume.  Cambridge, 
1811. 

The  oldest  college  literary  magazine  which  has  come 
down  to  us. 

271.  James,  Hexry,  Jr.  The  (Harvard)  Crimson. 
Harvard  Graduate  Magazine,  vol.  viii,  p.  181. 

Describes  the  management,  make-up,  and  influence 
of  the  modern  college  daily. 

272.  OsBORX,  Hexry  F.  The  Princeton  Journals. 
Princeton  Book,  p.  400. 

An  historical  sketch  of  Princeton  journalism. 

273.  Perry,  Thomas  Sergeaxt.  The  College 
Journals  (of  Harvard).    Harvard  Book,  vol.  ii,  p.  173. 

An  historical  account  of  Harvard  journalism. 

274.  Wesleyan.  The  College  Argus.  Volumes  V  to 
X.    Middletown,  1871-'77. 

275.  Williams.  Williams  Literary  Monthly.  Two 
volumes.    WilliamstowTi,  1885-87. 

276.  Williams.  Williams  Literary  Quarterly.  Five 
volumes.    Williamstown,  1854-'59. 


346  STUDENT  LIFE  AND  CUSTOMS. 

277.  Yale.  The  Yale  Literary  Magazine.  Sixty- 
four  volumes.     New  Haven,  1837-^99. 

The  most  famous  of  college  literary  monthlies. 

278.  Yale.  Yale  Courant.  Odd  volumes  from  YII 
to  XXXIII.    New  Haven,  1870-95. 

XIV.  Literature  of  Miscellaneous  Student  Clubs. 
A.  Religious. 

279.  Cooke,  Joseph  Platt.  The  Christian  Breth- 
ren.   Harvard  Book,  vol.  ii,  p.  360. 

An  account  of  one  of  the  oldest  Christian  societies. 

280.  DoGGETT,  L.  L.  History  of  the  Young  Men's 
Christian  Association,  vol.  i,  1844-'55.  New  York, 
1896. 

Does  not  deal  directly  with  college  associations. 

281.  DuFFiELD,  John  T.  The  Philadelphian  Soci- 
ety.   Princeton  Book,  p.  212. 

Corresponded  to  the  societies  of  inquiry  elsewhere. 

282.  MoTT,  John  E.  The  Students  of  the  World 
united.  Some  Achievements  of  the  Year  1897-'98 
(1899). 

Describes  the  international  students'  movement  of 
Europe,  with  account  of  author's  tour  and  visits  to  con- 
ventions. 

283.  MoTT,  John  E.  College  Young  Men's  Chris- 
tian Association  Buildings.    New  York,  1895. 

Describes  the  buildings  already  erected,  and  shows 
the  importance  of  such  in  the  religious  life  of  colleges. 

284.  MoTT,  John  E.,  Eeynolds,  J.  B.,  Wishard, 
L.  D.  The  Christian  Movement  in  the  Universities  of 
America,  Europe,  and  Asia.     Chicago,  1893.    . 

Comparatively  obsolete. 

285.  MoTT,  John  E.,  Stevenson,  J.  E.,  Eoot,  P. 


APPENDIX.  347 

Eeport  of  the  Executive  Committee  of  the  Student  Vol- 
unteer Movement  for  Foreign  Missions.  Presented, 
February  23-27,  1898. 

Outlines  the  policy  of  the  movement  and  summa- 
rizes its  achievements. 

286.  EiCHMOND,  Willia:^!.  The  St.  Paul's  Soci- 
ety.   Harvard  Book,  vol.  ii,  p.  402. 

A  brief  account  of  an  Episcopalian  society. 

287.  Sheldox,  George.  The  Xassau  Bible  Society. 
Princeton  Book,  p.  227. 

A  unique  Princeton  organization. 

288.  Student  Volunteer  Movement  for  Foreign  Mis- 
sions.    Official  pamphlets  by — 

Eddy,  Sherwood.  The  Supreme  Decision  of  the 
Christian  Student,  or  the  Choice  of  a  Life  Work.  Xew 
York,  1895. 

Gates,  Merrill  Edwards.  Christian  Missions  and 
the  Highest  Use  of  Wealth. 

Lyox,  Willard  D.  The  Volunteer  Band  for  For- 
eign Missions.    Chicago,  1895. 

Describes  the  organization  and  workings  of  the  in- 
dividual band. 

Lyox,  Willard  D.  The  Volunteer  Declaration, 
1895. 

White,  J.  Campbell.  The  Self-Perpetuation  of 
the  Volunteer  Band. 

289.  Texure,  Arthur  B.  The  St.  Paul's  Society. 
Princeton  Book,  p.  231. 

290.  Young  Men's  Christian  Association.  Year- 
book of  the  Young  Men's  Christian  Association  of 
North  America,  1897.    New  York,  1897. 


348  STUDENT  LIFE  AND  CUSTOMS. 

B.  Professional  and  Industrial. 

291.  Federation  of  Graduate  Clubs.  Graduate 
Handbook.     Seven  volumes  (1892-'99). 

Introduction  to  each  volume  contains  an  account  of 
graduate  clubs.  Volume  VII  much  more  important 
than  other  numbers  of  the  series. 

392.  Stone,  Milton  Jerome,  Jr.  The  Co-opera- 
tive Society  (of  Harvard).  Harvard  Graduate  Maga- 
zine, vol.  i,  p.  560. 

293.  Stone,  Milton  Jerome,  Jr.  History  of  Co- 
operation in  the  United  States.  Johns  Hopkins  Uni- 
versity Studies  in  Historical  and  Political  Science,  vol. 
vi.    Baltimore,  1888. 

Chapters  I  to  II,  Co-operation  in  New  England,  by 
Edward  W.  Bemis,  contains  accounts  of  the  co-opera- 
tive stores  at  Harvard,  Yale,  and  Massachusetts  Insti- 
tute of  Technology. 

294.  California,  University  of.  Proposed  JSTew 
Constitution  of  the  Student  Co-operative  Society  of  the 
University  of  California.     Berkeley,  1894. 

C.  Philatitliropic. 

295.  Calkins,  Eaymond.  Volunteer  Charity  Work. 
Harvard  Graduate  Magazine,  vol.  iii,  p.  323. 

An  account  of  the  philanthropic  activities  of  the 
Harvard  religious  associations. 

296.  Minnesota,  University  of.  Actual  Experi- 
ence in  making  a  Living,  related  by  Men  who  have  made 
their  Own  Way  through  the  University.  Four  Essays. 
1898. 


APPENDIX.  349 

D.  Musical  and  Dramatic. 

297.  Dennis,  Alfred  L.,  Jr.  Glee  and  Instru- 
mental Clubs  (of  Princeton).    Princeton  Book,  p.  412. 

298.  DwiGHT,  John  Sullivan.  The  Pierian  So- 
dality.   Harvard  Book,  vol.  ii,  p.  363. 

299.  FooTE,  Arthur  William.  The  Harvard  Glee 
Club.    Harvard  Book,  vol.  ii,  p.  394. 

300.  Stoeckel,  Gustave  J.  Music  and  Musical  So- 
cieties (at  Yale).    Yale  Book,  vol.  ii,  p.  479. 

E.  General  Miscellaneous. 

301.  Hale,  Edward  Everett.  The  Xatural  His- 
tory Society.    Harvard  Book,  vol.  ii,  p.  385. 

302.  LoTHROP,  Samuel  Kirkland.  The  Harvard 
Washington  Corps.    Harvard  Book,  vol.  ii,  p.  375. 

303.  Merwin,  Henry  Childs.  Miscellaneous  Or- 
ganizations (at  Harvard).  Harvard  Book,  vol.  ii,  p. 
417. 

XV.  Literature  of  Women^s  Student  Societies. 

304.  Hill,  Mary  Brigham,  and  Eager,  Helen 
Gertrude.  Wellesley.  The  College  Beautiful.  Bos- 
ton, 1894. 

Describes  organizations  and  fetes  at  Wellesley. 

305.  Richardson,  Sophia  Foster.  Tendencies  in 
Athletics  for  Women  in  Colleges  and  Universities. 
Popular  Science  Monthty,  vol.  1,  p.  517. 

A  carefully  prepared  paper,  dealing  with  the  results 
of  Kraepelin. 

306.  Smith,  L.  R.  Social  Life  at  Vassar.  Lippin- 
cott's  Magazine,  vol.  xxxix,  p.  841  (1887). 

307.  Stow,  Sarah  D.  (Locke).    History  of  Mount 


350  STUDENT  LIFE  AND  CUSTOMS. 

Holyoke  Seminary,  South  Hadley,  Mass.,  during  the 
Pirst  Half  Century  (1837-1887),  1887. 

XVI.  Literature  of  Student  Societies  in  Second- 
ary Schools. 

308.  Commons,  John  E.  The  -Junior  Eepublic. 
American  Journal  of  Sociology,  vol.  iii,  p.  281 
(1898). 

Best  sketch  of  the  Freeville  experience. 

309.  French,  C.  W.  School  Government.  School 
Review,  vol.  vi,  p.  35  (1898). 

A  plea  for  student  self-government,  with  the  consti- 
tution of  the  student  association  of  the  Hyde  Park  High 
School. 

310.  McAndrew,  W.  a.  High-School  Self-Govern- 
ment.    School  Review,  vol.  v,  p.  456  (1897). 

An  account  of  an  experiment  at  Pratt  Institute, 
Brooklyn,  with  constitution. 

311.  MiLNER,  Florence.  School  Management 
from  the  Side  of  Social  Life.  School  Review,  vol.  vii, 
p.  215. 

Discusses  the  social  functions  of  the  class. 

312.  Peabody,  Endicott.  School  Patriotism. 
School  Review,  vol.  ii,  p.  502  (1895). 

Shows  the  relation  between  athletics  and  the  growth 
of  a  school  spirit. 

313.  Shaw,  Albert.  The  School  City.  A  Method 
of  Pupil  Self-Government.  (American)  Review  of  Re- 
views, voL  XX,  p.  693  (1899). 

An  account  of  the  recent  schemes  for  pupil  self-gov- 
ernment in  American  schools  and  high  schools. 

314.  Sharpless,  Isaac.  What  is  the  Present  Con- 
sensus of  Opinion  as  to  the  Most  Important  Problems 


APPENDIX.  351 

in  Preparatory  and  Collegiate  Education?    School  Ee- 
view,  vol.  vi,  p.  145  (1898). 

Contains  a  plea  for  intellectual  leadership  and  pro- 
tests against  excessive  athleticism  and  social  activities. 

315.  Snyder,  Z.  X.,  and  others.  Eeport  on  Xormal 
Schools — The  Inner  Life  of  the  Normal  School.  Pro- 
ceedings of  the  National  Educational  Association,  1899, 
p.  861. 

Eecognises  the  value  of  student  societies. 

316.  Thurber,  C.  H.  High-School  Self-Govern- 
ment.     School  Eeview,  vol.  v,  p.  32  (1897). 

Gives  the  constitution  of  the  Warren  (Pennsyl- 
vania) High-School  Association,  with  Comments. 

317.  Thurston,  Henry  W.  An  Inquiry  relating  to 
Training  for  Citizenship  in  the  Public  Schools.  School 
Eeview,  vol.  vi,  p.  577  (1898). 

Presents  the  results  of  questionnaire.  Section  G 
treats  of  social  education  through  student  societies. 

318.  Self-Government  by  Pupils.  Appendix  H  of 
the  Eeport  of  the  Educational  Commission  of  the  City 
of  Chicago.     Chicago,  1899. 

An  account  of  the  system  of  pupil  self-government 
in  the  John  Crerar  Grammar  School. 


IIS^DEX. 


Abbott,  Jacob,  148. 

Abelard,    Peter,    2. 

Academies,  student  societies  in. 
See  Secondary  Schools. 

Accommodations  for  athletics, 
254,  255. 

Adams,  Charles  K.,  on  frater- 
nities, quoted,  291,  292. 

Adelbert   College,   class  officers, 
198. 
rushing,    199. 
fraternity    strength,    227. 

Agricultural  Discussion  Society, 
Edinburgh,   80. 

Aiken,  E.  E.,  Secret  Society 
System,  185,  186. 

Alabama,    University   of,    rebel- 
lions, 111. 
"^STcTen,  S.,  and  Stetson,  C,  The 
Rebelliad,  110. 

Alexandrian  Debating  Society, 
Amherst,    12G,    132. 

Alpha  Delta  Phi  Fraternity,  145, 
174. 

Alpha  Phi  Fraternity,   297. 

Alpha  Sigma  Phi  Fraternity, 
219. 

Alpha  Theta  Phi  Fraternity, 
221. 

Alpha  Zeta  Fraternity,  298. 

Altdorf,  University  of,  Komment 
of,  19. 

American  College  Fraternities, 
by  "W.  R.  Baird,  summary, 
187-189. 

American  Whig  Debating   Soci- 
ety, Princeton,  93. 
23 


Amherst        College,         rushing, 
103. 
class  custom,   115. 
miscellaneous     societies,     119- 

121. 
debating      societies,      126-128, 

134. 
Chi    Delta    Theta    Fraternity, 

144. 
athletics,  146,  192-194,  248. 
student    self-government,    149, 

260. 
religious   societies,   159,   161. 
political  societies,  162. 
musical   clubs,   164. 
scientific  clubs,   165. 
Amherst  Collegiate,  153. 
Andover   Theological    Seminary, 
early     missionary     revival, 
282. 
Annapolis  Naval  Academy,  boat- 
ing, 231. 
Annarugians,      Centre     College, 

122. 
Anti-Ximmo,  Edinburgh  Univer- 
sity, 77. 
Antislavery     Society,     Amherst, 

162. 
Anti-Venenean      Society,       Am- 
herst, 161. 
Arnold,  Matthew,  43. 
Arnold,  Thomas,  reforms  at  Rug- 
by, 59,  60. 
favors  fagging,  64. 
Asceticism  in  mediaeval  univer- 
sities, 3. 
Associators,  Cambridge,  40. 

353 


354 


STUDENT  LIFE  AND  CUSTOMS. 


Athenoean      Debating      Society, 

Bowdoin,  126. 
Attienian  Debating  Society,  Am- 

lierst,  126,   131. 
Athenicum     Debating     Society, 

Columbia,   126. 
Atliletics    in    mediaeval    univer- 
sities, 3,  4. 
in  English  universities,  39,  50- 

53. 
in  English  public  schools,   55, 

60,  65-68. 
in     Scottish     universities,     75, 

78. 
early    wrestling   and    football, 

102. 
In   Revolutionary   period,    145- 

147. 
in  transition  period,  193-195. 
in  modern  period,  230-255. 
boating,  230,  231. 
baseball,  231,  232. 
football,  232,  233. 
track  athletics,  233,  234. 
miscellaneous  sports,  234. 
athleticism,  234-245. 
administration    of    athletics, 

245-249. 
values  in  athletics,  249-252. 
students    participating,    253, 

254. 
athletic         accommodations, 
254,  255. 
in  secondary  schools,  291,  299, 
300. 
Aufklarung,   89,   90. 
Axe  and  Coffin,  Columbia,  177. 

Bacon,  David  Francis,  153. 
Baird,  W.  R.,  American  College 

Fraternities,  summary, 

187-189,  219. 
exclusiveness    of    fraternities, 

quoted,  227. 
Balliol,   Master  of  (Jowett,   B.), 

43. 
Banterers'  Club.  Oxford,  41. 
Barbarians        (non  -  fraternity 

men),  224-226. 


Bartlett,  S.  C,  quoted  on  class 

meetings,  112. 
Baseball    in    colleges,    194,    231, 

232. 
Bates  College,  class  feeling,  200. 
athletic  administration,  248. 
student  self-government,  265. 
strength  of  Christian  associa- 
tions, 273. 
Baynes,  A.  H.,  quoted,  33,  34.' 
Beecher,  Henry  Ward,  166. 
Beethoven  Society,  Yale,  164. 
Belmont  School,  295. 
Beloit  College,  hazing,  199. 
social  functions,  200. 
class  feeling,  200. 
fraternity  strength,  227. 
Benevolent     Society,     Bowdoin, 

160. 
Benzer,  of  Jena,  28. 
Berkeley  Association,  276. 
Bethany  College  Ranters,  121. 
Bicycle  clubs,  234. 
Black  Order  of  Harmony,  21. 
Blacks,  26. 
"  Bloody     Monday,"      Harvard, 

199. 
Blue  Skins,  96. 

Boating,   in  eighteenth  century, 
39. 
in  modern  Oxford,  51. 
at  Eton,  55. 
Edinburgh,  78. 

in  American  colleges,  192-194, 
230,  231. 
Bogies,  115. 
Bologna,  University  of,  2. 

nations  at,  7. 
Book  clubs  in  English  colleges, 

44. 
Boule  Dogue,  Pennsylvania,  154. 
Bowdoin  College,   salting  fresh- 
men, 100. 
Yager  fights.  11,3. 
Pandowdy  Band,  122. 
debating    societies,    126,     128, 

134. 
debating     societies'     libraries, 
130. 


INDEX. 


355 


Bowdoin  College,  Chi  Beta  Kap- 
pa Fraternity,  144, 

athletics,  146,  248. 

religious  societies,   160. 

scientific  societies,  166. 

student    self-government,    265, 
266. 
Bowl  and  Stones,  Yale,  177. 
Boyesen,  Hjalmar  Hjorth,  36. 
Bristed,  Charles  Astor,  47,  48. 

criticism  of  debating  societies, 
127,  1.36-138. 

athletics  at  Yale,  146. 

on  college  journalism,  156. 
Brodt,  Philip  E.,  value  of  debat- 
ing societies,  note,  142. 
Brooks,  Phillips,  156. 
Brougham,  Henry,  76. 
Brown  University,  81,  88. 

debating  societies,  126,  201. 

debating  society  libraries,  131. 

religious  societies,  160. 

forensic  training,  212. 

bull-baiting    and    bear-baiting, 
38. 
Bullingdon  Club,  Oxford,  53. 
Bully  Club,  Yale,  113,   114,   147. 
Bump  suppers,  46. 
Burning  of  text-books,  117,  118. 
Burschenschaften,  22-30.  35. 
Burton's  Harmony  of  the  Gos- 
pels,  281. 

Calabogus      Debating      Society, 

Harvard,  93. 
California,    anti-football   legisla- 
tion, 243. 
California,  University  of,  debat- 
ing  societies,   201. 
forensic  training,  213. 
fraternity     controversy,      222, 

223. 
football,  233. 
honour  system.  263. 
Calliathump,  Yale,  122. 
Caluvian  Society,  Bowdoin,  166. 
Cambridge  English  High  School, 

299. 
Cambridge,  University  of,  2. 


Cambridge,  University  of,  in  sev- 
enteenth century,  37,  38. 

clubs    in    eighteenth    century, 
40,  41. 

education    in    eighteenth    cen- 
tury, 42. 

social  life  of  colleges,  44-^6, 

debating  union,  46--i9. 

political  societies,  49,  50. 

athletics,    51-53. 
Camp,  Walter,  football  and  war, 

injuries     from     football,     239, 
240. 
Canning  Club,  Oxford,  50. 
Catholic  clubs,  271,  276. 
Cecil,   Robert   (Lord   Salisbury), 

48. 
Centre   College,    Kentucky,    An- 

narugian  Band,  122. 
Channing,  Dr.,  109. 
Charter  House  School,  55,  65. 
Chatham  Club,  Oxford,  50. 
Chemical  Society,  Edinburgh,  80. 
Chicago,  University  of,  forensic 
training,  212,  213. 
fraternities,  218. 
football,  233. 

student  self-government,  267. 
Chi  Delta  Theta  Fraternity,  144. 
Chi  Psi  Fraternity,  145. 
Christian      Association,       Edin- 
burgh, 80. 
Church,  W.  C,  on  injuries  from 

football,  240. 
Class  organization,  as  scholastic 
division,  83. 
at  Harvard,  84. 
in    Revolutionary    period,    95- 

125. 
customs,  114-119. 
in  modern  period,  196-201. 
in  secondary  schools,  293,  295. 
Cliosophic      Debating      Society, 

Princeton,  93. 
Clubs,  miscellaneous  English,  in- 
fluence on  English  student 
societies,  39. 
wine,  45. 


356 


STUDENT  LIFE  AND   CUSTOMS. 


Clubs,     social,     at    Oxford,    53, 

54. 
Colleges  of  mediaeval  period,  9, 
10. 
English,    in    seventeenth    cen- 
tury, 37,  38. 
modern  English  social  life,  43. 

clubs,  44. 
English  colonial,  81,  82. 
College  Secret  Societies,  by  H. 
L.  Kellogg,  summary,  181- 
185. 
Colonization    Society,    Amherst, 

1G2. 
Colour-bearing  societies,  34,  35. 
Columbia  University,  81,  88. 
debating  societies,  126,  130. 
debating  society  libraries,  131. 
baseball,  194. 
forensic  training,  212. 
Commencement    Day    at    early 
Harvard,  83,  118. 
scholastic  disputes,  91. 
dissatisfaction    over    honours, 

108. 
description  of  customs,  118. 
Constitution  Club,  Oxford,  40. 
Corbin,  John,  70,  71. 
Cornell      University,      initiation 
tragedy,  182. 
hazing,  199. 
debating  societies,  202, 
forensic  training,  212,  213. 
boating,  231. 
football,  233. 
honour  system,  263,  264. 
student  self-government,  265. 
Young  Men's   Christian  Asso- 
ciation, 274.  , 
Corps,   30-34. 

Court  of  Areopagus,  Yale,  101. 
Cricket,   in  eighteenth  century, 
39. 
in  modern  Oxford,  51,  52. 
in  public   schools,   55. 
at  Princeton,  192,  195. 
Cricket  clubs,  234. 
Crosby,  Howard,  on  fraternities, 
183,  184. 


Crotoniau      Debating      Society, 

Yale,  93. 
Curling,  75. 
Curtis,  G.  W.,  133. 
Cutting,  George  A.,  Student  Life 

at  Amherst,  quoted,  103. 

Dartmouth  College,  81,  88. 
freshmen  laws,  86. 
salting  freshmen,  100. 
debating    societies,    126,    128, 
134. 
Debating      societies,      England, 
eighteenth  century,  40. 
in  English  colleges,  44. 
unions,  Oxford,  Cambridge,  46- 

49. 
English  public  schools,  68. 
Scottish    universities,    76,    77, 

79,   80. 
in  colonial  colleges,  89-94. 
in   Revolutionary   period,   125- 

142. 
internal  management,  126-129. 
literary  exercises,  129-131. 
general  influence,  131-133. 
decline,  133-135. 
value  of,  135-142. 
in  modern  period,  201-215. 
oratory,  203-206. 
intercollegiate,  206-211. 
in     secondary     schools,     295- 
297. 
Delaware  College,  violence,  107. 
Delta  Beta  Xi  Fraternity,  Yale, 

174. 
Delta  Gamma  Fraternity,  Yale, 

172. 
Delta   Kappa    Fraternity,   Yale, 

172. 
Delta  Kappa  Epsilon  Fraternity, 

145,  174. 
Delta  Phi  Sigma  Fraternity,  144, 

183. 
Delta  Upsilon  Fraternity,  179. 
Deposition,  12. 

Deutsche  Studenten  Verein,  34. 
Diagnostic    Society,    Edinburgh, 
76,  79. 


INDEX. 


357 


Dialectic  Debating  Society,  Uni- 
versity of  North  Carolina, 
126,  132. 

Dialectic  Society,  Edinburgh,  76, 
79. 

Dickens,   Charles,  47. 

Discipline  of  students  in  colonial 
colleges,  87-89. 
Revolutionary  period,  95-97. 

Drinking  in  English  colleges,  39. 

Duelling  among  German  stu- 
dents, 32-35. 

Edinburgh    University,    poverty 
of  students,  73,  74. 
athletics,  78. 
social  organizations,  79. 
debating  societies,  76,  77,  79. 
Eligibility  code  in  athletics,  247. 
Eliot,    C.    W.,    overtraining    in 
athletics,  quoted,  238. 
injuries  from  football,  quoted, 

240. 
dangers         of         athleticism, 
quoted,  in  note,  242. 
Ellis,  Mrs.,  Treatise  on  Domes- 
tic Economy,  115. 
Emerson,  R.  W.,  on  friendship, 

quoted,    186. 
English  university  education,  42. 
Equitable   Fraternity   of   Union, 
Amherst  and  Hamilton,  179. 
Erfurt,  University  of,  12. 
Erlangen,  University  of,  Lands- 
mannschaften,  16. 
secret  orders,  21. 
Eton  Club,  Oxford,  54. 
Eton  school,  55. 
athletics,  56. 
fagging,  56,  64. 
discipline,  57. 
house  system,  61. 
rule  of  sixth  form,  62. 
Pop  and  other  societies,  68. 
Etonian  typical,  69. 
Evarts,  W.  M.,  133,  156. 
Everett,  Edward,  1.56. 
Everett  Athenaeum,  168. 
Experiment,  Amherst,  153. 


Fagging,  in  early  times,  56. 
modern  fagging,  64. 
Public      School      Commission, 
quoted,  63,  64. 
Farrar,  F.  W.,  quoted,  70,  71. 
Fichte,  J.  G.,  at  Jena,  20. 

influence,  26. 
Field  and  track  athletics  in  Eng- 
lish universities,  52. 
in  American  colleges,  233,  234. 
Fives  in  public  schools,  55. 
Follen,  Karl,  26,  27,  145. 
Football,  in  eighteenth  century. 
39. 
at  modern  Oxford,  52. 
at  public  schools,  65. 
at  Scottish  universities,  75,  78. 
at  early  Harvard,  145. 
in  transition  period,  194,  195. 
in  modern  period,  232,  233. 
Ford,   Lionel,   quoted  on  athlet- 
ics, 66. 
Fox,  C.  J.,  57. 
Fox-hunting,  39,  52. 
Fraternity,    Greek   letter,    influ- 
ence   on   debating    society, 
133. 
during    Revolutionary    period, 

142-145. 
in  transition  period,  167-192. 
at  Harvard,  167-171. 
at  Yale,  171-178. 
controversies,  178-192. 
in  modern  period,  215-229. 
general  tendencies,  215-218. 
local  and  miscellaneous  fra- 
ternities, 219-221. 
controversies,  221-226. 
influence  and  future,  226-229. 
in  secondary  schools,  297-299. 
Free  Cynics,  Oxford,  41. 
Free  societies,  34. 
Freshman  Laws,  85-87. 

Gamma  Eta  Kappa  Fraternity, 

298. 
Gamma    Nu    Fraternity,     Yale, 

172. 
Geddes,  Patrick,  79. 


358 


STUDENT  LIFE  AND  CUSTOMS. 


George  Junior  Republic,  301. 

Georgia,    University   of,    honour 
system,  265. 

Georgia    Legislature,    anti-foot- 
ball  legislation,  243. 

Gilman,  Daniel  Coit,  156. 

Gladstone,  W.  E.,  47. 

Godkin,    E.    L.,    denounces   ath- 
leticism, 244. 

Golf,  75,  78. 

Golf  clubs,  234. 

Gottingen,         University         of, 
Landsmannschaften,  16. 
secret  orders,  21. 

Greeks    (fraternity    men),    224- 
226. 

Gridiron,  Yale,  153. 

Grinnell  College  honour  system, 
263. 

Groton  School,  295. 

Guest,  Amherst,  152. 

Gunning  clubs,  234. 

Gymnastics    at    early    Harvard, 
145. 
in  transition  period,  192. 

Hale,  Nathan,  94. 
Halle,     University     of,     Lands- 
mannschaften,  16. 
Wiugolf,  34. 
Hamilton  College,  freshman  cele- 
bration, 114. 
burning  of  Convivium,  186. 
Handball  at  Princeton,  192. 
Harrow  School,  55,  65. 
discipline  and  dissipation,  57. 
house  system,  62. 
Hart,  J.  M.,  quoted,  32,  33. 
Hartwell,  E.  M.,  dangers  of  ath- 
leticism,  quoted,  242,  243. 
Harvard  Lyceum,  155. 
Harvard     Musical     Association, 

164. 
Harvard   Natural   History   Soci- 
ety, 165. 
Harvard  University,  81. 
early  appearance  of  class,  84. 
freshman  laws,  86. 
discipline  in  colonial  period,  88. 


Harvard  University,  fishing,  96. 
hazing,  100,  199. 
early    wrestling   and    football, 

102. 
destruction  of  property,  107. 
rebellions,  109,  110. 
prohibits  class  meetings,  112. 
class  customs,  114,  115,  196. 
Navy  Club,  117. 
commencement,  118. 
Phi  Beta  Kappa,  143. 
gymnastics,  145. 
religious  conditions,  158. 
musical  societies,  163. 
scientific  societies,  165. 
fraternities,  167-171,  181,  217. 
athletics,    193,    194,    224,    230- 

232,  246,  248,  253. 
debating  societies,  201. 
intercollegiate  debating,  207. 
forensics,  212,  213. 
student  self-government,  271. 
religious  societies,  276-278. 
Harvard  "Washington  Corps,  162. 
Hasty  Pudding   Club,   Harvard, 

168. 
Hazing,  97-102,  198. 
Hazlewood  School,  58,  59. 
Heidelberg,  University  of,  drink- 
ing bouts,  31. 
H.  E.  O.  T.  T.  Society,  Amherst, 

121. 
Helsingfors,    University   of,   na- 
tions of,  8. 
Hemenway,   A.,   athletic  notori- 
ety, 236. 
High  Borlaco  Club,  Oxford,  40. 
High   schools,    student   societies 
in.    See  Secondary  Schools. 
Hill,  Rowland,  58. 
Hillhouse,   James,  94. 
Historical  Society  of  Dublin,  90. 
Hitchcock,    Edward,    results   of 
hazing,  106. 
evil  results  of  fraternity,  179. 
Honorary  fraternities,  221. 
Honour     system     of     examina- 
tions, 262-265. 
Horse  Collegianse,  Amherst,  153. 


INDEX. 


359 


Hospitia  or  inns,  mediaeval,  8,  9. 
House  system  in  English  public 

schools,  59-61. 
Howitt,  William,  quoted,  30,  31. 
Hughes,    Tom    Brown's    School 

Days,  59. 
Huling,  Ray  Greene,  high-school 

debating,  quoted,  297. 
Huss,  John,  10. 

Hyde  Park  High  School,  301,  302. 
Hyson  Club,  Cambridge,  41. 

I.  K.  A.  Fraternity,  219. 

Illinois,  University  of,  student 
self-government,  256-259. 

Indiana,  University  of,  presenta- 
tion ceremony,  115. 
fraternity  controversy,  226. 

Indicator,  Amherst,  153. 

Initiation  ceremonies,  mediaeval 
period,  6. 
German  universities,  12. 

Initiation  of  freshmen  (Vir- 
ginia), 99. 

Institute,  of  1770,  debating  so- 
ciety. Harvard,  93,  167. 

Intercollegiate     debating,     206- 
'211. 

Jacques,  J.  R.,  on  fraternities, 
quoted.   184,   185. 

Jefferson  College,  Moonlight 
Rangers,  122. 

Jefferson  Debating  Society,  Uni- 
versity of  Virginia,  126. 

Jefferson,  Thomas,  scheme  of 
student  self  -  government, 
148. 

Jeffreys.  Lord,  76. 

Jelly-bag  Club,  Oxford,  41. 

Jena,      University     of,      Lands- 
mannschaften,  16,  20. 
secret  orders,  21. 
Burschenschaften.  22,  25. 
student  pranks,  31. 

Johns  Hopkins  University,  fo- 
rensic training,  213. 

Journals,  college,  beginnings  in 
debating  societies,  1.30. 


Journals,  early  college,  151-156. 

Kansas,  University  of,  football, 

233. 
Kappa  Alpha  Fraternity,  144. 

at  Cornell,  182. 
Kappa  Alpha  Theta  Fraternity, 

220. 
Kappa    Kappa    Gamma    Frater- 
nity, 220. 
Kappa    Sigma    Epsilon    Frater- 
nity, Yale,  172. 
Keate,    Dr.,   of   Eton,    discipline 

of,  57. 
Kellogg,    H.    L.,    Secret   Society 

System,  182-185. 
Kiel,  University  of,  nations,  16. 
Landsmannschaften,  16. 
I    King's  College,  New  York.     See 
j  Columbia. 

[    Knatchbull-Hugessen,  48. 
■    Komment,  18-20,  32. 

Kotzebue,     August    von,     books 
I  burned,  23. 

j       death,  27. 

Lafayette  College,  class  feeling, 
I  200. 

debating  societies,  202. 
1       fraternity  strength,  227. 
I    Lambda   Sigma  Eta  Fraternity, 
!  221. 

j    Lapsus  Linguae,  Edinburgh,  77. 
Latin   plays   in   English   univer- 
sities, 38. 
Leipsic,  University  of,  10. 
Landsmannschaften,  16. 
Leland  Stanford  Junior  Univer- 
sity, hazing,  199. 
class  feeling,  200. 
forensics,  213. 
fraternities,  218,  226,  227. 
football,  233. 
honour  system,  263,  264. 
student   self-government,   268- 
270. 
Leys,  J.,  quoted,  74, 
Libraries  of  debating  societies, 
130. 


360 


STUDENT  LIFE  AND   CUSTOMS. 


Linngean  Society,  Amherst,  165. 

Linonia  Debating  Society,  Yale, 
93. 

Literary  Cabinet,  Yale,  152. 

Literary  clubs  in  eighteenth  cen- 
tury, 40,  41. 
in  English  colleges,  44,  45. 
in  English  public  schools,  68. 

Literary  Tablet,  Dartmouth,  152. 

Little  Gentleman,  Yale,  153. 

Local  fraternities,  219. 

Lowe,  Robert,  47. 

Luther,  Martin,  quoted,  12. 

Lutheran  Society,  Amherst,  164. 

Lyceum  movement,  90. 

Lycurgan  Society,  Yale,  161. 

Lyon,  Willard  D.,  organization 
of  mission  bands,  quoted, 
284. 

McAndrew,  W.  A.,  high-school 
self-government,  quoted, 
303. 

McCosh,  James,  on  fraternities, 
quoted,   181,   186. 

Magna,  Edinburgh,  77,  78. 

Maine,    University    of,    athletic 
administration,  248. 
self-government    of    students, 

259,  265. 
honour  system,  263. 

Masson,  David,  quoted,  77. 

Medical  Institute,  Pennsylvania, 
166. 

Melanchthon,  Philip,  quoted,  11, 
12. 

Mercurian  Debating  Society, 
Harvard,  93. 

Metternich,  Prince,  27. 

Michigan,    University    of,    anti- 
fraternity  movement,  226. 
forensic  training,  212. 
football,  232. 

Middlebury    College,     freshman 
laves,  86. 
honour  system,  263. 

Military  organizations,  162,  163. 

Mills  Society  of  Inquiry,  Wil- 
liams, 160. 


Milner,  Florence,  class  functions 
in  high  schools,  quoted, 
294,  295. 

Minchin,  J.  G.  C,  quoted,  65. 

Minnesota,  University  of,  debat- 
ing societies,  202,  215. 
forensics,  212,  213. 
football,  232. 

Young    Men's    Christian    Soci- 
ety, 280,   281. 

Missionary  Lyceum,  Wesleyan, 
160. 

Missionary  Society,  Edinburgh, 
80. 

Missions,  public  school,  69. 

Missouri,  University  of,  football, 
233. 

Moberly,  of  Winchester,  quoted, 
58. 

Montpellier,  2. 

Moody,  D.  L.,  student  mission- 
ary enterprise,  282,  284. 

Moonlight  Rangers,  Jefferson 
College,  122. 

Moral  Society,  Yale,  160. 

Mu  Kappa  Sigma  Society,  Am- 
herst, 120. 

Mummy  Monster,  Pennsylvania, 
154. 

Musical  societies,  English  public 
schools,  68. 
American  colleges,   163,   164. 

Mystical  Seven,  (fraternity),  145. 

National  Christian  Association, 
committee  on  fraternity 
problem,  182. 

Nations     of     mediaeval     univer- 
sities,  7,   8. 
of  German  universities,  seven- 
teenth century,  12,  13. 

Natural    history   societies,    Eng- 
lish public  schools,  68. 
Winchester,  69. 

Natural  History  Society,  Edin- 
burgh, 80. 

Navy  Club  (Harvard),  117. 

Nebraska,  University  of,  hazing, 
199. 


INDEX. 


361 


Nebraska,    University   of,    class 
feeling,  200. 
debating  societies,  202. 
fraternity  strengtti,  227. 
students  participating  in  ath- 
letics, 254. 
Newman,  J.  H.,  quoted,  42,  43. 
New  York,  University  of  City  of, 
burning  of  Zumpt's   Latin 
Grammar,  118. 
students  participating  in  ath- 
letics, 254. 
Nimmo  or  Almas  Tawse,   Edin- 
burgh, 77. 
Nonsense  Club,  Oxford,  41. 
Normal    schools,    student    soci- 
eties   in.      See    Secondary 
Schools. 
North    Carolina,    University    of, 
debating  societies,  126,  130, 
132. 
Northwestern  University,  foren- 
sic training,  212,  215. 
football,  232. 
student  self-government,  271. 

Oberlin   College,   forensic  train- 
ing, 212. 
Ohio  Wesleyan  University,  haz- 
ing, 199. 
forensics,  213. 
O.  K.  Society,  Harvard,  169. 
Old  Maid  Club,  Cambridge,  40. 
Omicron   Kappa   Pi   Fratei-nity, 

298. 
Oratorical  leagues  and  contests, 

203,   204. 
Order  of  the  Cross,  21. 
Owl    and     Padlock    Fraternity, 

Michigan,  177. 
Owl      and      Wand      Fraternity, 

Wesleyan,  177. 
Oxford,  2. 
violent  outbreaks  of  students 

in  mediaeval  period,  45. 
nations  at,  8. 
hospitia  of,  9. 

colleges  of  mediae  vol  period.  9. 
in  seventeenth  century,  37,  38. 


Oxford  clubs  in  eighteenth  cen- 
tury, 40,  41. 

education    in    eighteenth    cen- 
tury, 42. 

beauty  of,  43. 

social  life  of  colleges,  44^6. 

debating  union,  46-^9,  202. 

political  societies,  50. 

athletics,  51-53. 
Oxford  Club,   Yale,   271,  276. 

Paean  Band,  Amherst,  164. 
Palmerston  Club,  Oxford,  50. 
Pandowdy  Band,  Bowdoin,  122. 
Pan-Hellenic  Movement,  228. 
Paris,  University  of,  2,  3. 
violence   in    mediaeval   period, 

4,  5. 
nations  at,  7. 
hospitia  of,  8. 
colleges  of,  9. 
Parmele,    Elisha,    extends    Phi 

Beta  Kappa,  143. 
Parthenon  Debating  Society,  Co- 
lumbia, 126. 
Peabody,  A.  P.,  result  of  hazing, 

106. 
Peace  Society,  Amherst,  162. 
Pearson,  Eliphalet,  158. 
Peithologian    Debating    Society, 

Wesleyan,  126. 
Pemberton,  J.  S.  G.,  quoted,  49, 

51. 
Pennalism,  11-16. 
Pennsylvania,  University  of,  81. 
the  bowl  fight,  104. 
debating  societies,   126. 
scientific  societies,  166. 
rushing,  199. 
forensics,  212. 
boating,  231. 
football,  232. 

student    self-government,    265, 
267. 
Phi     Beta     Kappa     Fraternity, 
origin    and    early    history, 
142. 
recent  growth,  221. 
Phi  Delta  Phi  Fraternity,  220. 


J 


362 


STUDENT  LIFE  AND  CUSTOMS. 


Philadelphia  Society,  Princeton, 
158. 

Philanthropic  Debating  Society, 
University  of  North  Caro- 
lina, 126,  132. 

Philermenian  Debating  Society, 
Brown,  126. 

Phillips  Andover  Academy,  290, 
298. 

Phillips  Exeter  Academy,  290, 
295,  298. 

Philogian  Debating  Society,  Wil- 
liams, 126. 

Philomathean  Debating  Society, 
University  of  Pennsylvania, 
126. 

Philomathic  Society,  Edin- 
burgh, 76,  79. 

Philopogonia  Society,  Amherst, 
120. 

Philorhetorean  Debating  Soci- 
ety,  Wesleyan,  126. 

Philosophical  Society,  Edin- 
burgh, 80. 

Philotechnian  Debating  Society, 
Williams,  126. 

Phi  Nu  Theta  Fraternity,  145, 
219. 

Phi  Theta  Psi  Fraternity,  Yale, 
174. 

Pi  Beta  Nu  Fraternity,  221. 

Pi  Beta  Phi  Fraternity,  220. 

Pi  Eta  Society,  Harvard,  170. 

Pierian  Sodality.  Harvard,  163. 

Pincinian  Del)ating  Society, 
Bowdoin,   126. 

Piscatorians,  96. 

Plain-Dealing  literary  society, 
Princeton,  93. 

Poetic  Club,  Oxford,  41. 

Political  clubs,  German,  22-30. 
in  eighteenth  century,   39,  40. 
modern  English,  50. 
in  American  colleges,  162. 

Polo  clubs,  234. 

Porcellian  Society,  Harvard,  170. 

Porter,    Noah,    quoted   on    class 
system,  123. 
on  fraternities,  185. 


Prague,  University  of,  10. 
Pratt  High  School,  303. 
Praying  Circle,  Bowdoin,  160. 
Princeton  University,  81,  88. 
freshman  laws,  86. 
public  speaking  in,  92. 
debating  societies,  93,  202. 
cane  spree  and  rushing,  105. 
rebellions.  111. 
athletics,     146,     147,     192-195, 

248. 
religious  conditions,  157,  158. 
attitude    toward    fraternities, 

181,  224. 
forensics,  212. 
football,  232. 

Young   Men's  Christian   Asso- 
ciation, 274. 
missionary  movement,  282. 
Professionalism  in  athletics,  245. 
Prospect  Union,  Harvard,  278. 
Psi  Upsilon  Fraternity,  145,  174. 
Public    School    Commission    Re- 
port (1864),  quoted,  63,  64. 
Public  schools  of  England,  char- 
acterization of,  54,  55. 
student  societies  in,  55-72. 
Purdue     University,     fraternity 
controversy,  222. 

Ranters,  Bethany  College,  121. 

Rashdall,   H.,  quoted,  4,  36. 

Raumer,  Karl  von,  quoted,  28.-^ 

Rebellions  of  students,  108-112.'"'^ 

Rectorial  elections,  76. 

Red  Night-Cap  Club  of  Harrow, 
57. 

Reformation  in  England,  37. 

Religious  conditions  in  public 
schools,  before  Arnold,  57, 
58. 

Religious  societies  for  studeuts 
in  England,  68. 
in  early  period,  156-162. 
in     modern     period.     271-286. 
See    Young    Men's    Chris- 
tian Association. 

Representative  Councils,  Scot- 
tish universities,  79. 


INDEX. 


3()3 


Reynolds,  James  B.,  student  re- 
ligious societies  in  Europe 
and  America  compared, 
276. 

Riemann,  of  Ratzeburg,  speech 
quoted,  23. 

Rifle  Company's  Shooting  Club, 
Edinburgh,  78. 

Rifle  Corps,  English  public 
school,  68. 

Robinson  of  Brown  on  fraterni- 
ties,  quoted,   185,   186. 

Romanes,   G.   J.,   71. 

Rosebery,  Earl  of,  79. 

Rostock,  University  of,  Lands- 
mannschaften,  16. 

Rowing  Association  of  American 
Colleges,   194,  231,   232. 

Royal  Medical  Society,  Edin- 
burgh, 76,  80. 

Rugbian,  typical,  69. 

Rugby  rules  (football),  195. 

Rugby  School,  55,  65. 
sporting  tendencies,  57. 
Arnold's  reforms,  59-61. 
house  system,  62. 

Rushing,  102-106,  198. 

Russell  Club,  Oxford,  50. 

Rutgers  College,  81. 
baseball,  195. 

Salisbury,  Marquis  of.  48. 

Sand,  Karl  Ludwig,  27. 

Saturday  Evening  Religious  So- 
ciety, 158. 

Scharf,  D.  S.,  105. 

Schurman,  J.  G.,  honour  system 
at  Cornell,  note  quoted, 
264. 

Scientific  clubs,  165,  166. 

Scots  Law  Society,  Edinburgh, 
76. 

Scott,  Walter.  47,  76. 

Scroll  and  Keys  Fraternity, 
Yale,   175-177. 

Secondary  schools,  student  soci- 
eties in.  289-306. 
academies,  289,  290. 
city  high  schools,  290,  291. 


Secondary    schools,    rural    high 
schools,  291,  292. 
normal  schools,  292,  293. 
class  organization,  293-295. 
debating  societies,  295-297. 
fraternities,  297-299. 
athletics,  299,  300. 
student     government    associa- 
tions, 300-304. 
miscellaneous,  304. 
value  of,   304-306. 
Secret  orders  in  German  univer- 
sities, 21,  22. 
Secret  Society  System,  by  E.  E. 
Aiken,  summary,  185,  186. 
Selborne,    Lord,   47. 
Self-governing  associations.    See 

Student  Self-government. 
Self-improvement  societies,  90. 
Shakespeare    Society,    Winches- 
ter, 69. 
Sharmon's  Studies  in  the  Life  of 

Christ,  281. 
Sharpless,  Isaac,  71. 
school    societies    vs.     culture, 
quoted,  300. 
Shelley,  P.  B.,  at  Eton,  56. 
Shrewsbury  School,  55,  65. 
Shrine,  Amherst,  152. 
Sigma  Xi  Fraternity,  221. 
Singing  Club,  Harvard,  163. 
Sixth  form,  rule  of,  60.  62,  63. 
report  of  Public  School   Com- 
mission, quoted,  63. 
Skull     and     Bones     Fraternity,  ■ 

Yale,  175-177. 
Skull    and    Serpent    Fraternity, 

Wesleyan,  177. 
Smith,   C.   H.,   student  self-gov- 
ernment       at        Bowdoin, 
quoted,  266. 
Smoking  out,  98,  99. 
Snow  riots,  75. 

Snyder,   Z.    X.,   value  of  school 

societies  in  normal  schools, 

quoted,  293. 

Social  Fraternity,  Williams,  179. 

Social  Friends  Debating  Society, 

Dartmouth,  126. 


364 


STUDENT  LIFE  AND   CUSTOMS. 


Society  for  Missionary  Inquiry, 

Brown,  IGO. 
Society  of  Ctiristian  Bretliren  in 

Harvard  University,  158. 
Society  of  Natural  History,  Am- 
herst, 165. 
Society  of  Natural  History,  Wil- 
liams, 1G6. 
Sororities,  219,  220. 
South  Carolina  College,  violence, 
107. 
rebellions.  111. 
religious  condition,  157. 
self-government    of    students, 
260. 
Spectator,   of  London,   value  of 

debating  societies,  141. 
Speculative  Society,  Cambridge, 

40. 
Speculative  Society,  Edinburgh, 

76,  79,  90. 
Sprite,   Amherst,  152. 
St.  Andrew's  University,  74. 
St.  Paul's  Society,  Harvard,  271. 
Stanley,  A.   P.,   Life  of  Arnold, 

59. 
Student       self-government       in 
early  period,  148-151. 
in  modern  period,  255-271. 
University  of  Illinois,  256. 
University  of  Maine,  259. 
University  of  South  Cnrolina, 

260. 
Amherst  senate,  260. 
honour  system,  262-265. 
advisory    committee,   265. 
student  councils,  265-267. 
dormitory    committees,    267, 

268. 
student-body     organizations, 

268-270. 
summary,  270.  271. 
in  secondary  schools,  300-304. 
Student     volunteer     movement, 
Northfield  conference,  282. 
aim,  283. 

management,  283,  284. 
literature,  284. 
results,  284-286. 


Students'  Club,   Edinburgh,  78. 
Students'  Companion,  Yale,  153. 

Tabor    College    honour    system, 
263. 

Tait,  Archbishop,  47. 

Tau  Beta  Pi  Fraternity,  221. 

Taussig,    F.    W.,    sensationalism 
in  athletics,  quoted,  235. 
dangers  of  athleticism,  quoted, 

242. 
relations   between   games   and 
physical    training,    quoted, 
250. 

Tennis  clubs,  234. 

Tennis  in  public  schools,  55. 

Thecanians  (fraternity),  145. 

Theological     Society,    Amherst, 
159. 

Theological     Society,     Bowdoin, 
160. 

Theological  Society,  Edinburgh, 
76,  80. 

Theological     Society,     Bowdoin, 
160. 

Thring,  Edward,  quoted,  64. 
on  athletics,  66. 

Thurston,    Henry   W.,    value   of 
school  societies,  305. 

Tin  gloves  at  Winchester,  56. 

Total  Abstinence  Society,  Edin- 
burgh, 80. 

Town  and  gown  rows,  112-114. 

Trinity  College,  Hartford,  burn- 
ing of  conic  sections,  118. 
decline  of  debating  clubs,  134, 

201. 
scheme  of  student  self-govern- 
ment, 148. 
military  club,  163. 

True  Blue  Club,  Cambridge,  40. 

Tubingen,   University  of,  secret 
orders,  21. 

Tufts  College,  decline  of  debat- 
ing club,  134. 
rushing,  199. 

Tugendbund,  29. 

Tulane   University,   athletic  ad- 
ministration, 248. 


INDEX. 


365 


Tulane  University,  student  self- 
government,  265,  267. 
Tutoring  freshmen  (Yale),  99. 

Union    College,    prohibits    class 
meetings,  112. 
early  fraternities  at,  144. 
student  self-government,  150. 
Union,      Debating,      Cambridge, 
foundation,  46. 
in  middle  period,  47. 
club  features,  48. 
oratory,  49,  211. 
Union,  Debating,  Edinburgh,  79. 
Union,    Debating,   Oxford,   foun- 
dation, 46. 
early  history,  47. 
in  middle  period,  48. 
club  features,  48. 
oratory,  49,  211. 
United    Brothers'    Debating   So- 
ciety, Brown,  126. 
United  Fraternity  Debating  So- 
ciety,  Dartmouth,  126. 
United  Religious  Societies,  Har- 
vard, 276. 
University      Hall,      Edinburgh, 

79. 
University      John      the      Giant 

Killer,  Edinburgh,  77. 

University  Journal  and  Critical 

Revievr,  Edinburgh,  77. 

Vanderbilt      University,       class 
feeling,  200. 
forensics,  213. 
fraternity     controversy,      223, 

227. 
football,  233. 

student  self-government,  267, 
Vermont,    University   of,    smok- 
ing out,   99. 
honour  system,  263. 
student  self-government,  265. 
Vienna,  University  of,  10,  11. 
Vincents  Club,  Oxford,  54. 
Virginia,    University   of,    initia- 
tion of  freshmen,  99. 
^bating  societies,  126. 


Virginia,  University  of,  student 
self-government,  148,  256. 
forensics,   213. 
football,  233. 
athletic  administration,  248. 

Walker,  Francis  A.,  dangers  of 

debating  societies,  138. 

condition    of    early    athletics, 

147. 
injuries  from  football,  240. 
value  of  athletics,  quoted,  251. 

Walking  as  recreation  in  Eng- 
lish universities,  39,  53. 

Walking  clubs,  234. 

Wallace,  G.  R.,  infidelity  at 
Princeton,  quoted,  157. 

Warfield,  of  Lafayette,  value  of 
student  self-government, 
quoted,  256. 

Wartburg   Festival,   22,   23. 

Washington  College,  Pennsyl- 
vania, ridicule  of  religious 
students,  157. 

Washington  Debating  Society, 
University  of  Virginia,  126. 

Wednesday  Evening  Religious 
Society,  158. 

Well-Meaning  debating  society, 
Princeton,  93. 

Wesley,  John,  157. 

Wesleyan    University    debating 
societies,  126,  130,  201. 
religious  societies,  160. 
student  self-government,  265. 

Western  Reserve  University  de- 
bating societies,  202. 

Westminster  School,  55. 

Whately,  Richard,  dangers  of 
debating  societies,  136. 

White,  Andrew  Dickson,  1.56. 
on    college    fraternities,     189- 
191. 

Whitefield  Debating  Society, 
Harvard,  93. 

Whitefield,  George,  157. 

William  III,  40. 

William  and  Mary  College,  81. 
Phi  Beta  Kappa,  142. 


3G6 


STUDENT  LIFE  AND  CUSTOMS. 


Williams    College    debating    so- 
cieties, 126,  128. 

debating  society  libraries,  131. 

religious  societies,  160. 

scientific  society,  16G. 

honour  system,  264. 

early  missionary  interest,  282. 
Winchester  Club,  Oxford,  54. 
Winchester  School,  55. 

fagging  at,  56,  64. 

rule  of  sixth  form,  62. 

house  system,  62. 

societies,  69. 
Wine  clubs,  45. 
Wingolf,  34. 

Wisconsin,    University   of,    haz- 
ing, 199. 

debating  societies,  202. 

fraternity  controversy,  22G. 

boating,  231. 

football,  232. 
Wooden        Spoon        exhibition, 

Yale,  116. 
World's  Student  Christian  Fed- 
eration, 275. 

Yale    Literary    Magazine,     152, 

155. 
Yale  News,  249. 
Yale  University,  81,  88. 
early  class,  84. 
freshman  laws,  86. 
public     speaking     in     colonial 

days,  92.  * 

debating  societies,  93,  127,  128, 

134,  201. 
tutoring  freshmen,  99. 
hazing,  101. 
rushing,   103,   104,   199. 
violence   to   college   buildings, 
107. 


Yale  University,  board  at  com- 
mons, 108. 

rebellions,  110. 

prohibits  class  meetings,  112. 

town  and  gown  rows,  113. 

class  customs,  114. 

Wooden  Spoon  exhibition,  116, 
117. 

Calliathump,  122. 

debating      society       libraries, 
130. 

Phi  Beta  Kappa,  143. 

athletics,     145,     192-194,    230- 
232,  248,  249. 

student  self-government,  150. 

religious  and   moral   societies, 
160,  161. 

musical  societies,  164. 

society  system,  172-178,  224. 

modern      class      organization, 
197. 

junior  promenade,  200. 

Young   Men's   Christian  Asso- 
ciation, 274,  278-280. 
Young  Men's  Christian  Associa- 
tion for  colleges,  271-286. 

history,  272. 

organization,  272,  273. 

membership.   273. 

buildings,   274. 

international    relations,    275. 

typical  associations,  276-282. 

student    volunteer    movement, 
282-286. 

in  normal  schools,  293. 

Zelosophie  Debating  Society, 
University  of  Pennsyl- 
vania, 126. 

Zeta  Psi   Fraternity,   145. 

Zodiak  Club,  Cambridge,  40. 


THE    END. 


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